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jWHAT   IS   MUSIC? 


BY 

ISAAC    L.    EICE, 

AtJTHOK  OF  "analysis  AND  PRACTICB  OP  THB  SCALES." 


NEW     YORK: 
D.    APPLETON     AND    COMPANY, 

649    AND    651    BEOADWAT. 

1875.  ,^ 

I-  ■ 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875, 
Bx    ISAAC    L.    RICE, 
In  the  OflSce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington* 


Il^TEODTJOTIO:^". 


The  question,  "What  is  music?"  is  not  new, 
not  recent,  not  even  modern  ;  it  is  as  old  as  liistory 
itself.  In  the  remotest  antiquity  it  has  occupied 
the  minds  of  thinkers,  and  elicited  curious,  ingen- 
ious, and  interesting  fundamental  theories.  I  have, 
therefore,  thought  it  advisable,  before  setting  forth 
my  own  views,  to  give  a  resume  of  the  various 
theories  current  in  ancient  times,  as  well  as  during 
the  middle  ages,  together  with  a  not  lengthy  discus- 
sion on  the  theories  of  Euler,  Herbert  Spencer,  and 
Helmholtz.  The  question  being  in  my  estimation  a 
cosmical  one,  I  believe  that,  on  the  whole,  the  an- 
cients, in  considering  so,  understood  it  better  than 
most  of  the  moderns,  who  treat  it  too  much  from  a 
sentimental,  subjective  point  of  view.  Of  course, 
we  must  make  allowance  for  the  method  of  expres- 
sion of  the  ancients ;  their  language  was  to  a  great 
extent  symbolical,  and  abounded  even  in  what  may 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

be  termed  compound  symbols ;  that  is  to  say,  an 
originally  symbolical  expression  came  to  be  so  com- 
monly understood,  that  it  was  used  to  serve  as  the 
basis  for  still  deeper  symbols :  this  is  particularly 
the  case  with  the  numher  symbolism,  which  at  the 
outset  was  simple  enough — as  may  be  learned  from 
the  interpretations  given  to  it  in  Dacier's  "  Life  of 
Pythagoras,"  but  which  later  came  to  be  so  com- 
plicated that  it  is  to  us  but  little  more  than  a  num- 
her mysticism.  There  are  no  commentaries  incor- 
porated in  this  little  work,  and  for  two  reasons : 
first,  because  they  have  no  practical  value ;  secondly, 
because  the  great  aim  of  the  ancient  fundamental 
theories  of  music  is  easily  perceived  even  without 
having  a  key  to  the  mysterious  expressions.  This 
aim  is,  to  show  that  music  is  a  great  part  of  the  cos- 
mos, and  not  a  human  contrivance.  The  ethical 
and  psychological  speculations  of  antiquity  on  the 
subject  of  music  are,  by-the-way,  also  deserving  of 
our  attention  :  and,  in  fact,  the  sooner  we  follow  the 
precepts  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  deduced  from  those 
speculations,  the  better  will  it  be  for  our  civilization. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

In  the  mathematical  and  physical  branches  of 
the  science  we  have,  of  course,  completely  overshad- 
owed the  ancients ;  for,  since  the  publication  of 
ITewton's  "Principia,"  there  has  hardly  been  a 
name  of  distinction  among  physicists  and  mathema- 
ticians, but  it  is  intimately  connected  with  prog- 
ress in  acoustics ;  and  this  is  not  strange,  for,  to 
use  the  language  of  Prof.  Leslie,  "  the  doctrine  of 
sound  is  unquestionably  the  most  subtile  and  ab- 
struse in  the  whole  range  of  physical  science."  It 
occurs  to  me  that  the  reader  might  here  ask  me, 
"  "Why,  then,  do  you  hold  our  conception  of  music  to 
be  less  true  than  that  of  the  ancients  ?  If  we  are  su- 
perior to  them  in  knowledge,  why  should  we  be  infe- 
rior to  them  in  comprehension  ?  "  These  questions, 
I  think,  can  be  easily  answered.  To  paraphrase  a 
sentence  of  Boetius,  we  have  numbers-  of  instru- 
mentalists  and  vocalists,  but  musicians  are  rare  ;  in 
other  words,  the  art  and  the  science  of  music  have 
become  distinct  studies,  and  in  consequence  our 
conception  of  music  has  become  confined  and  im- 
perfect. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

In  this  little  work,  then,  I  have  attempted  to 
give  the  outlines  of  a  cosmical  theory  of  music,  based 
on  the  knowledge  of  our  times,  and,  whether  it  be 
correct  or  not  will  be  for  an  intelligent  public  to 
judge.  For  my  part,  if  I  have  but  succeeded  in  free- 
ing the  matter  from  the  subjectivity  by  which  it  is 
now  so  enthralled,  and  shown  that  it  can  and  ought 
to  be  treated  from  a  purely  objective  point  of  view, 
I  shall  consider  myself  amply  rewarded. 

In  reference  to  the  theory  itself,  I  have  only  to 
say  that  I  do  not  deem  it  difficult  to  abstract  time 
from  space,  when  investigating  the  principles  of  the 
beautiful,  nor  do  I  believe  that  much  mental  effort 
IS  required  to  understand  how  certain  things  may 
be  said  to  exist  in  time,  others  in  space.  Of  a  ma- 
terial body,  we  can  by  no  means  abstract  space,  for 
it  exists  in  it ;  while  we  may  easily  abstract  time 
from  it  when  we  treat  of  its  beauty.  In  like  man- 
ner, in  speaking  of  music,  we  may  abstract  the 
question  of  space,  for  that  forms  no  part  of  its  beau- 
ty ;  while  we  could  by  no  means  abstract  time,  for 
that  is  the  life  of  its  beauty,  its  existence  itself. 


WHAT   IS   MUSIC? 


PART    I. 
I. 

CHINESE    THEORY. 


The  ancient  Chinese  scale  consisted  of  five  tones, 
viz.,  f,  g,  a,  c,  d.  These  tones  were  considered  sym- 
bolical of  the  five  elements — earth,  metal,  wood, 
fire,  water.  The  elements  as  well  as  the  tones  were 
held  to  have  been  produced  by  combinations  of  the 
ten  original  numbers : 

The  combination  of  one  and  five  producing  water 
and  the  tone  Yu  (d). 

The  combination  of  two  and  seven  producing 
fire  and  the  tone  Tsche  (c). 

The  combination  of  three  and  eight  producing 
wood  and  the  tone  Kio  (a). 

The  combination  of  four  and  nine  producing 
metal  and  the  tone  Chang  (g). 

The  combination  of  five  and  ten  producing  earth 
and  the  tone  Kung  (f). 


8  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

Each  of  these  tones  was  the  tonic  of  a  different 
mode ;  and,  aware  of  the  remarkable  internal  gov- 
ernment in  the  musical  scale,  they  considered  these 
modes  in  combination  as  symbolical  of  a  well-gov- 
erned people : 

The  mode  Kung  of  the  emperor ;  Tschang,  the 
minister ;  Kio,  the  obedient  people ;  Tsche,  the  af- 
fairs of  state ;  Yu,  the  whole  body  politic. 

As  the  art  developed  itself,  however,  musicians 
would  no  longer  limit  themselves  to  the  compara- 
tively small  number  of  combinations  and  modula- 
tions capable  of  being  produced  by  five  tones.  So, 
as  the  spirit  moved  them,  they  added  new  ones, 
without  endeavoring  to  give  any  explanation  of 
them,  or  to  refer  them  to  any  law.  Much  confusion 
in  musical  matters  was  the  consequence,  and  the 
state  of  affairs  became  actually  unendurable  at 
about  twenty-seven  hundred  years  before  the  pres- 
ent era.  Then  the  Emperor  Hoang-Ti,  urged  by 
the  constant  reclamations  and  numerous  petitions 
of  the  learned  men,  finally  ordered  Ling-Lun,  the 
greatest  musician  of  his  time,  to  put  an  end  to  the 
confusion  by  establishing  music  on  a  new  basis  of 
Bound  principles  and  fixed  laws.  Ling-Lun  left  the 
capital  and  traveled   toward  the  high   mountains 


CniNESE   THEORY.  9 

where  the  Iloang-ho  takes  its  rise.  He  followed  the 
stream  to  its  sources,  but,  while  ascending  a  lofty 
peak,  suddenly  felt  his  feet  refusing  their  support. 
He  sat  down  and  soon  fell  into  a  deep  reverie. 
Then  appeared  to  him  Fung-Hoang,  the  wonderful 
double-bird,  which  appears  to  man  only  on  rare 
occasions,  and  for  the  particular  purpose  of  bene- 
fiting mankind  in  general.  The  male  Fung  sang 
six  tones,  the  female  Hoang  six  others,  and  the 
deepest  tone  produced  by  Fung  was  Kung,  the  great 
tone.  Now  the  waters  of  the  Hoang-ho  rushing 
by  likewise  intoned  the  Kung,  and  Ling-Lun's  own 
voice,  when  speaking,  was  in  unison  with  it.  Kung 
was,  besides,  symbolical  of  the  earth  among  the  ele- 
ments, and  of  the  emperor  in  the  state,  so  Ling-Lun 
at  once  recognized  it  as  the  root-tone,  whence  all 
others  had  sprung.  He  then  returned  to  the  capi- 
tal and  elaborated  his  new  system.' 

'  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  very  tone  Kung  which  cor- 
responda  to  our  f  is  considered  by  modem  physicists  to  be  the 
actual  tonic  of  Nature.  Says  Silliman,  in  his  "  Principles  of  Phys- 
ics : "  "  The  aggregate  sound  of  Xature,  as  heard  in  the  roar  of  a 
distant  city,  or  the  waving  foliage  of  a  large  forest,  is  said  to  be  a 
single  definite  tone,  of  appreciable  pitch.  This  tone  is  held  to  be 
the  middle  F  of  the  piano-forte,  which  may  therefore  be  considered 
the  key-note  of  Nature." 


10  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

The  fundamental  tone,  the  generator  of  all 
the  others,  is  Kung.  But  he  alone  could  not  have 
produced  them  — he  required  helpmates.  These 
were  Ta-Lu  (f  #),  the  great  Helper,  and  Yng-Tschung 
(e),  the  second  Helper.  The  two  chief  supporters 
of  Kung  were  Tschung-Lu  (b  b),  and  Lin-Tschung 
(c),  for  by  their  aid  lie  effected  the  circle  of  the  fifths 
and  of  the  fourths.  The  double-bird  Fung-Hoang 
Lad  sung  twelve  tones — Fung,  the  male,  six ;  Hoang, 
the  female,  six.  These  twelve  tones  formed  the 
twelve  semitones  of  the  octave.  Those  intoned  by 
Fung  were  considered  perfect  (yang),  while  the 
others  were  imperfect  (yu).  This  was  in  accordance 
with  Chinese  philosophy,  which  divided  things  into 
perfect  and  imperfect,  and  held  that  each  thing 
perfect  had  a  counterpart  in  something  imperfect; 
such,  for  instance,  was  the  relation  in  which  man 
stood  to  woman,  heaven  to  the  earth,  the  sun  to  the 
moon.  The  twelve  semitones  were  also  symbolical 
of  the  twelve  moons  of  the  year.  In  the  circle  of 
fifths,  a  begets  e,  e  begets  b,  etc.,  as  the  first  moon 
begets  the  second,  the  second  the  third,  etc. 

From  these  beginnings  a  comprehensive  system 
was  developed  in  the  course  of  time.  As  I  shall, 
however,   only  occupy  myself  with  fundamental 


CHINESE  THEORY.  H 

theories,  I  cannot  follow  this  development.  The 
very  ancient  system  containing  but  five  tones  is, 
in  fact,  sufficient  to  illustrate  how  the  Chinese 
grappled  with  the  question,  "  What  is  music  ? " 

The  principle  of  dignity  is  manifested  in  the 
emperor,  likewise  in  the  mode  Kung. 

The  principle  of  severity  is  manifested  in  the 
minister,  likewise  in  the  mode  Chang. 

The  principle  of  obedience  is  manifested  in  the 
people,  likewise  in  the  mode  Kioi 

The  principle  of  energy  is  manifested  in  the 
liandling  of  the  affairs  of  state,  likewise  in  the 
mode  Tsche. 

The  principle  of  magnificence  is  manifested  in 
the  body  politic,  likewise  in  the  mode  Yu. 

Now  if  we  remember  that,  as  each  mode  was 
the  manifestation  of  some  principle  as  materialized 
in  the  elements  of  the  state,  so  each  tone  in  itself 
was  the  manifestation  of  a  principle  as  materialized 
in  an  element  of  Nature,  we  cannot  but  perceive 
that  the  Chinese,  who  took  their  premises  for 
granted,  had  a  complete  and  logical  theory  explain- 
ing the  power  of  music  over  the  emotions. 

We  must  not,  however,  suppose  that  they  con- 
sidered it  necessary  for  the  hearer  to  bear  this  the 


12  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

ory  and  its  elementary  significations  in  mind  wliile 
listening  to  music — nothing  is  more  distant  from 
tlieir  idea.  They  believed  that  each  tone  and  each 
mode  impressed  itself  according  to  its  character- 
istics directly  on  the  mind,  without  the  intervention 
even  of  thought;  that  music  acted  in  a  primary 
manner;  acted  as  much  upon  the  person  ignorant 
of  its  deep  signification,  as  upon  the  philosopher. 
The  ancient  Chinese,  moreover,  held  music  in  high 
estimation  in  consequence  of  their  theory.  It  is 
said,  for  instance,  that  Confucius  after  hearing  the 
compositions  of  Quei  would,  for  three  months,  think 
of  nothing  else,  and  even  refused,  for  a  time,  to 
partake  of  any  food.  One  of  his  sayings  was :  "  De- 
sire ye  to  know  whether  a  land  is  well  governed, 
and  its  people  have  good  morals  ?  Hear  its  music." 
Ma-Tuan-Li  asserts  that  whoever  undei'stands  music 
well  is  capable  of  governing.  Fo-IIi  himself  was 
the  inventor  of  an  instrument — the  kin.*  A  number 
of  emperors  were  skilled  musicians  and  composers. 
Several  are  portrayed  in  the  act  of  performing  on 
the  kin. 


HINDOO  THEORY.  13 

II. 

HINDOO   THEORY. 

The  musical  system  whicli  next  claims  our  at- 
tention is  that  of  the  ancient  Hindoos.  Though 
unlike  that  of  the  Chinese,  it  is  no  less  curious  and 
interesting.  The  latter  attempted  to  account  for 
the  power  of  music  over  the  emotions  by  a  mystic 
symbolical  system.  But  it  was  not  the  characteris- 
tic of  the  Hindoos  to  enter  into  such  geognostic 
mysteries.  They,  too,  were  susceptible  to  the  in- 
fluence of  music,  and  to  a  very  great  degree;  but 
they  were  too  indolent  to  seek  for  tlie  natural  cause 
of  the  phenomenon — they  had  a  simpler  way  of  do- 
ing tilings.  Wliy  spend  your  existence  in  the  futile 
eifort  to  untie  a  knot,  when  you  can  cut  it,  and 
sever  its  most  intricate  ramifications  at  a  single 
blow? 

Music  is  the  invention  of  tlie  great  god  Mahada- 
Bj-ishna,  who  caused  five  Ragas  to  spring  from  his 
five  heads.  The  sixth  owed  its  existence  to  Parbuti. 
Afterward  Brahma  himself  created  thirty  Raginits. 
Each  Raga  was  then  personified  in  a  god  who  pro- 
tected and  governed  it,  each  Raginit  in  a  nymph. 


14  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

The  Ilagas  were  the  primary  modes,  the  Raginits 
the  secondary  ones.  Later  Sarasvati,  the  spouse  of 
Brahma,  presented  mankind  with  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  instruments — the  vina.  The  demi-god  Nared 
was  selected  to  teacli  its  use.  Then  Mahada-Krish- 
na  endowed  the  Ragas  with  the  power  of  magic — 
the  Ragas,  in  turn,  endowed  the  Raginits.  Men,  ani- 
mals, and  inanimate  JSTature,  were  henceforth  com- 
pelled to  obey  them.  One  Raga  was  possessed  of 
the  power  of  raising  clouds  and  producing  rain.  A 
songstress  versed  in  that  mode  at  one  time  saved 
Bengal  from  an  imminent  famine  by  intoning  it. 
Another  Raga  could  cause  the  sun  to  vanish.  One 
charmed  serpents,  another  lions  and  tigers.  All 
beaven  is  filled  with  music.  The  great  god  Indra 
is  surrounded  by  Ganharves ;  they  accompany  him 
in  war,  and  sing  his  praise  in  peace.  Yea,  the  ter- 
rible Sliiva  himself  was  charmed  by  the  magic  of 
Ravana's  vina.  Music  is  the  peer  of  prayer  and 
sacrifice — it  is  god-compelling. 

The  original  system  was  mucb  elaborated  in  the 
course  of  time,  so  that  it  grew  to  contain  no  less 
than  sixteen  thousand  modes,  each  of  which  was 
governed  by  one  of  the  sixteen  thousand  nymphs 
who  attempted  to  gain  the  love  of  Mahada-Krishna 


HINDOO  THEORY  15 

during  Lis  incarnation.  The  nymphs  are  governed 
by  the  thirty  Raginits,  the  Raginits  by  the  six 
Ragas,  the  Eagas  by  Krishna  himself.  l!^ow,  as  cer- 
tain Raginits  had  affinities  for  certain  Ragas,  it  was 
conceived  that  a  general  marriage  had  taken  place 
— that  each  Raga  had  been  wedded  to  five  Raginits, 
and  that  eight  sons  had  been  born  in  each  family  ; 
that  each  of  the  forty-eight  sons,  called  putras,  had 
taken  a  n3'mph  for  a  spouse,  whereupon  the  imme- 
diate family  of  the  Ragas  comprised  one  hundred 
and  thirty-two  heads,  all  chiefs  of  modes. 

Later,  the  Ragas  were  construed  as  being  also 
gods  of  the  seasons.  This  was  done  because  there 
appeared  to  be  a  great  analogy  between  the  frame 
of  mind  produced  by  each  of  the  Ragas,  and  the 
one  natural  to  one  of  the  six  seasons  into  which 
the  Hindoo  year  was  divided.  The  joyful  strains 
of  one  Raga  were  symbolical  of  the  season  of 
blooming ;  the  gay  characteristics  of  another,  of  the 
ripening  of  the  fruits;  while  the  sad  and  melan- 
choly melodies  of  another,  of  the  fading  and  falling 
leaves.  In  time  it  became  to  be  considered  a  grave 
offense  to  the  presiding  Raga  of  the  season,  if  melo- 
dies in  any  but  one  of  the  modes  subject  to  his  con- 
trol were  intoned. 


16  WHAT   IS    MUSIC? 

How  differently  the  Chinese  and  Hindoos  ac- 
counted for  the  emotive  power  of  music !  On  the 
cue  hand,  the  gloomy  mysteries  of  the  numbers  and 
tlie  elements;  on  the  other,  the  bright,  fantastic, 
gorgeous  heaven  of  sunshine,  marriages,  and  pleas- 
ures! And  yet,  who  knows  but  that  the  Hindoo 
philosophers,  who  established  such  a  flowery  system, 
were  thinkers  fully  as  deep  as  the  Chinese  sages — 
that  their  original  conception  and  hidden  meaning 
were  not  as  spiritual  as  those  of  modern  days  ?  It 
was  the  spirit  of  the  age  to  call  a  force  a  god — 
that  is  to  say,  to  personify  the  ideal,  the  spiritual. 
The  first  theoreticians  probably  used  the  word  raga 
as  a  sober  name,  signifying  mode.  As  the  tones 
increased  in  variety,  and  by  the  aid  of  modulation, 
changes  of  rhythm,  etc.,  appeared  to  become  almost 
unmanageable,  or  rather  irreducible  to  any  system  ; 
they  were  compelled  to  limit  them  to  a  certain 
number  of  modes  fit  for  practical  use,  and  this  num- 
ber became  in  course  of  time  extended  to  sixteen 
thousand  by  some  calculation  of  which  we  are  ig- 
norant. Then  came  mythological  philosophy.  The 
tones,  with  their  wonderful  efibct  on  the  soul,  must 
have  originated  in  heaven.  The  next  step  was  to 
specify  how  and  where  they  originated,  by  whom 


EGYPTIAN  THEORY.  17 

tliey  were  propagated,  and  then  the  wildest  specula- 
tions on  the  subject  were  the  order  of  the  day. 
The  peculiar  poetical  character  of  the  ancient  Hin- 
doo showed  itself  in  the  question, "  What  is  music  ? " 
as  part  of  the  question,  "  What  is  Nature  ? 


III. 

EGYPTIAliT   THEORY. 


The  Chinese  and  Hindoo  systems  never  spread 
beyond  the  limits  of  their  proper  countries.  Though 
based  on  high  and  noble  conceptions,  they  were  too 
deeply  impregnated  with  local  ideas  ever  to  become 
generally  accepted.  Wonderful  as  they  were,  yet 
how  inferior  were  they  to  the  magnificent  system 
of  the  Egyptians,  based  on  that  fundamental  theory 
of  unparalleled  grandeur  which  made  music  the 
symbol  of  the  whole  cosmos  !  ' 

The  Egyptians  compared  the  seven  tones  of  the 
diatonic  scale  to  the  seven  planets.  They  originated 
the  sublime  idea — which  subsequently  pervaded  all 
antiquity,  the  middle  ages,  and  even  left  its  traces 
in  recent  times  —  the  idea  of  the  liarmony  of  tbe 


18  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

spheres.  Music  was  no  longer  merely  a  manit'esta- 
tioTi  of  terrestrial  forces,  or  symbolical  of  terrestrial 
governments — it  came  to  be  considered  a  manifesta- 
tion of  the  celestial,  of  the  spirit  which  regulates 
the  universe.  Harmony  was  no  longer  restricted 
to  earth — it  came  to  be  the  ruling  principle  of 
all  Nature.  The  gods  were  the  means  through 
which  the  knowledge  of  music  was  imparted  to 
man.  Osiris  invented  the  flute;  Isis,  the  sacred 
songs.  Thot  was  teacher  of  the  science  of  harmony, 
and  of  the  nature  of  tones  as  well  as  of  the  system 
of  constellations.  Their  instruments,  as  numerous 
paintings  and  monuments  attest,  were  rich  in  num- 
ber and  remarkable  in  construction.  Of  the  details 
of  their  system  we  have,  however,  but  a  sparse 
account.  All  we  know  is,  that  the  seven  tones  of 
the  scale  are  manifestations  of  the  principle  which 
produced  the  seven  planets — Mercury,  Yenus,  Mars, 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  the  Sun,  and  the  Moon ;  and  that 
the  ratio  between  the  lowest  tone  and  the  highest 
was  the  same  as  between  Saturn,  the  most  distant 
planet,  and  the  Moon,  the  nearest. 

Yet  as  they  were  good  mathematicians,  and,  in 
fact,  the  inventors  of  geometry,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  they  were  the  discoverers  of  the  mathematical 


EGYPTIAN  THEORY.  19 

properties  of  music — tliat  they  found  the  laws  which 
refer  pitch  to  the  length  and  weight  of  the  material. 
This  supposition  is  strengthened  by  the  well-known 
fact  that  Pythagoras  was  for  twenty-two  years  a 
member  of  the  college  of  priests  at  Thebes.  That, 
at  all  events,  their  systems  and  theories  of  music 
must  have  occupied  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
studies  can  hardly  be  doubted.  Among  their  sacred 
books,  amounting  in  all  to  forty-two,  two  entire 
ones  are  devoted  to  music. 

The  Egyptians  were  the  first  to  designate  music 
as  physic  for  the  soul,  and  consequently  to  ascribe 
to  it  pathological  virtues.  They  were  also,  proba- 
bly, the  first  hymnographists,  and  formed  the 
models  of  all  hymns  of  future  times,  whether  He- 
brew or  Greek.  Moses,  as  well  as  Pythagoras,  was 
an  Egyptian  priest. 

The  question  whether  the  Egyptians  were,  after 
all,  not  indebted  to  the  Chaldeans  for  their  ideas  of 
music,  is  still  open.  That  the  Chaldeans  were  still 
older  astronomers  is,  I  believe,  admitted.  Ancient 
Chaldean  history  is,  however,  so  shrouded  in  mys- 
tery that  it  is  hazardous  to  form  a  conjecture.  It  is 
possible  that  the  Chaldeans,  who  were  the  great 
magicians  of  their  time,  and  who  attributed  magical 


20  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

power  to  the  number  seven,  may  have  been  the  first 
to  notice  the  relation  between  the  seven  in  music 
and  in  ancient  astronomv.  Still,  without  stronger 
proofs,  it  would  be  wrong  to  combat  the  claim  of 
the  Egyptians  to  the  priority. 


IV. 

GRECIAN   THEORIES. 


The  spirit  of  Eg}- pt  was  wafted  over  into  Greece. 
Grecian  philosophy  and  pliilosophico-rausical  spec- 
ulations began  about  the  seventh  century  before 
the  present  era.  The  opinions  and  theories  regard- 
ing God  and  the  world  were,  among  the  Greeks,  as 
among  other  nations,  primarily  clothed  in  myths 
and  symbols.  The  Greek  philosophers  rejected  the 
mythical  speculations,  and  strived  to  discover  the 
origin  and  condition  of  things,  by  means  of  obser- 
vations of  Nature  and  mathematical  calculations. 
Music,  as  part  of  the  system  of  the  universe,  was 
at  first  treated  like  other  forces  and  manifestations 
of  JSTature — it  was  dressed  in  the  mythical  garb ; 
afterward,  like  tliem,  it  was  the  subject  for  mathe- 
matical calculations  and  physical  observations. 


GRECIAX  THEORIES.  21 

Preeminent  among  tlie  sages  who  devoted  time 
to  music,  and  overshadowing  them  all  by  the  deptli 
of  his  views  and  the  range  of  his  observations,  as 
well  as  by  the  extraordinary  influence  he  exerted 
on  posterity,  stands  Pythagoras.  The  Ionian  phi- 
losophers who  preceded  or  were  contemporaneous 
with  him,  searched  for  the  origin  of  things — the 
original  matter  from  which  things  were  evolved. 
This  was  not  the  plan  of  Pythagoras.  He  con- 
sidered the  universe  as  a  cosmos — a  perfectly  ar- 
ranged entirety — and  searched  not  for  the  origin  of 
matter,  but  for  the  radical  principle  underlying  the 
cosmical  plan.  He  was  essentially  a  spiritualist — 
all  outward  Nature  was  merely  phenomenal  in  his 
view,  merely  the  manifestation  of  something  in- 
appreciable by  the  senses.  In  his  speculations  on 
music,  his  first  object  was,  therefore,  to  discover  its 
spiritual  cause;  for,  finding  that,  he  felt  assured 
that  he  could  logically  and  on  natural  grounds 
demonstrate  its  power,  define  its  object,  and  )^x 
upon  its  proper  position  in  the  cosmos.  The  con- 
densed result  of  his  speculations  is  this:  ^^ All  is 
number  and  harmony,  ^Numbers  are  the  guides 
and  preservers  of  the  harmony  of  the  universe. 
They  define  form,  order,  and  the  laws  of  things. 


22  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

In  them  is  contained  the  real  heing  of  all  things 
that  exist.  All  numbers  are  repetitions  of  the  "first 
ten.  The  ten  spring  from  unity,  which  is  therefore 
the  origin  of  all  things.  The  great  number  is  the 
number  four,  tlie  completion  of  the  sacred  Tetrak- 
tys ;  for,  if  added  to  the  first  three  it  produces  ten, 
the  limit  and  summation  of  the  fundamental  num- 
bers. In  the  number  one,  the  point  is  contained ; 
in  two,  the  line;  in  three,  the  superficies;  but  in 
four — the  first  square — is  the  defining  of  all  bodies. 
This  is  therefore  the  root  of  nature.  Numbers  ar6 
the  spiritual  essence  of  music.  "What  we  hear  in  the 
vibrations  of  a  material,  are  numbers.  In  the  mo- 
tion of  the  heavenly  bodies  we  see  numbers.  Music 
and  the  celestial  bodies  are  therefore  closely  related 
to  each  other." 

Then  Pythagoras  further  showed  that  consonance 
is  only  produced  by  the  ratios  expressible  in  the 
first  four  numbers,  which  are  the  root  of  all  things. 
The  ratio  of  the  length  of  strings  that  produce  an 
octave  is  2  : 1 ;  of  strings  that  produce  a  fifth,  3:2; 
of  strings  producing  a  fourth,  4 :  3. 

"Whether  Pythagoras  actually  discovered  these 
ratios  has  been  doubted  of  late,  and  the  discovery 
attributed  to  the  Egyptians.    At  all  events,  however. 


GRECIAN  THEORIES.  23 

the  reader,  unacquainted  with  the  history  of  music, 
•will  be  surprised  not  to  find  the  thirds  and  sixths 
classed  with  the  consonants  in  the  above  system. 
Well,  the  fact  is  that  the  Greeks  actually  considered 
these  intervals  as  dissonant,  for  they  were  entirely 
unacquainted  with  the  natural  thirds,  whose  ratios 
are  4 :  5  and  5  :  6 — nearly  as  simple  as  are  those  of 
fourths  and  fifths — and  calculated  their  thirds  by 
the  circle  of  fifths,  which  made  the  ratio  of  the 
major  third  64:  81 — an  actual  dissonance.  It  would 
hardly  be  fair  to  say  that  the  Pythagoreans  pur- 
posely ignored  those  consonants,  because  admit- 
ting them  would  have  conflicted  with  the  theory  of 
the  Tetraktys;  for  Aristoxenos,  who  was  opposed 
to  their  sect,  still  classed  thirds  among  the  dis- 
sonants. In  fact,  they  were  not  considered  as  con- 
sonants, and  barely  then,  until  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

So  we  see  that  Pythagoras  perfectly  succeeded 
in  proving  that  it  was  the  first  four  numbers  which 
ruled  the  consonances  as  well  as  the  dimensions; 
and  that,  consequently,  all  things,  whether  seen  or 
heard,  were  numbers  and  harmony.  "  Therefore," 
says  Panakmos,  a  Pythagorean,  "  it  is  the  business 
of  music,  not  only  to  preside  over  the  voice  and 


24  WHAT  IS   MUSIC? 

musical  instruments,  but  even  to  harmonize  all 
tilings  contained  in  the  universe."  God  organized 
all  Nature  according  to  the  laws  of  harmony,  was 
a  tenet  of  the  sect.  The  lyre  was  considered  a 
symbol  of  the  cosmos.  The  heavenly  bodies  were 
musical  instruments  sounding  forth  melodies  of  in- 
describable sublimity.  The  laws  of  harmony  were 
the  same  laws  that  built  and  preserved  the  uni- 
verse. In  consequence  of  his  sublime  conception, 
Pythagoras  enjoined  the  practice  of  music  as  a 
highly  virtuous  and  especially  meritorious  action, 
"for  music,"  said  he,  ^^ purifies  the  souV^ 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  theory,  so  vast,  so 
grand,  so  deep,  with  the  nimbus  of  a  charming  mys- 
teriousness  encircling  it,  should  have  retained  its 
influence  over  men  for  so  many  hundred  years ;  or 
that,  in  a  modified  form,  it  should  have  its  defenders 
even  in  the  present  day.  Yet  it  was  not  without 
able  opponents.  Aristoxenos  of  Tarent  attacked 
it  with  the  weapons  of  both  argument  and  satire. 
lie  ridiculed  the  Pythagorean  maxim  not  to  trust 
to  our  senses,  but  only  to  mathematical  calculations 
and  demonstrations,  and  boldly  declared  the  ear  it- 
self as  the  highest  autliority  in  matters  of  conso- 
nance and  dissonance.  His  followers  therefore  called 


ARABIC-PERSIAN  THEORY,  25 

tliemselves  musici,  while  tlie  Pythagoreans  denomi- 
nated themselves  canonici.  He  was,  besides  heing 
a  musician,  a  distinguished  philosopher  and  one 
of  the  pupils  of  Aristotle.  His  fundamental  theory 
was  entirely  realistic.  He  held  that  "  the  soul  is  a 
tension  of  the  body;  and  that  as  vibrations  were 
produced  on  strings,  so  the  emotions  manifested 
themselves  by  producing  vibrations  on  the  body — 
the  soul  acting  as  tension." 

Remarkable  for  their  truth,  and  the  depth  of 
thought  they  manifest,  are  the  ideas  on  music  of 
Aristotle.  They  are  in  fact  so  imbued  with  the 
modern  spirit,  that  they  would  appear  out  of  place 
if  cited  here.  They  will  be  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  theory  of  Helmholtz,  which  author 
quotes  them. 


y. 

AKABIC-PERSTAN    THEOSY. 

We  must  now  make  a  great  leap — over  a  num- 
ber of  centuries  in  which  no  new  systems  were 
developed,  and  plunge  right  into  the  heart  of  the 

middle  ages — the  Arabic-Persian  system  being  the 
2 


26  WHAT  IS  MUSIC? 

next  to  be  considered.  The  Persians  symbolized 
music  in  tbe  form  of  a  tree.  The  chief  root  is  Rast 
(d).  From  it  branch  off  the  auxiliary  roots  (d#,  e, 
and  f).  From  each  root  two  branches  shoot  fortli, 
producing  in  this  manner  the  twelve  semitones  of 
the  octave.  Rast  is  symbolical  of  the  original  matter 
to  which  all  things  are  reducible.  The  seven  tones 
of  the  diatonic  scale  are  symbolical  of  the  days  and 
nights  of  the  week,  likewise  of  the  seven  planets. 
The  twelve  semitones  of  the  octave  are  symbols  of 
the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  The  four  roots 
signify  the  four  elements. 

East,  is  fire — warm  and  dry.  Symbolical  of  the 
choleric  humor,  and  of  the  sign  Aries. 

Erak,  is  the  atmosphere — warm  and  moist.  Sym- 
bolical of  the  sanguine  humor,  and  of  the  sign 
Taurus. 

Ziref kend,  is  water — cold  and  moist.  Symboli- 
cal of  the  phlegmatic  humor,  and  of  the  sign  Gem- 
ini. 

Isfahan,  is  the  earth — dry  and  cold.  Symbolical 
of  the  melancholic  humor,  and  of  the  sign  Cancer. 

The  branches  have,  with  suitable  modifications, 
the  characteristics  of  their  respective  roots.  The 
Persians  called  their  lute  a  picture  of  Nature.    The 


ARABIC-PERSIAN    THEORY.  27 

liigliest  string  is  fire — tlie  sounds  are  dry  and  warm. 
The  next  is  air — tlie  sounds  are  clear  and  liglit. 
The  next  is  water — the  sounds  are  dark  and  cold. 
The  next  is  earth — the  sounds  are  low  and  heavy. 
From  the  connection  existing  between  the  humors 
and  the  elements,  music  has  the  power  of  curing 
diseases. 

Diseases  natural  to  a  phlegmatic  disposition  are 
cured  by  the  sound  of  the  highest  string.  Hypo- 
chondria is  cured  by  the  second  one.  Diseases  of 
the  young  (who  are  generally  choleric),  particularly 
the  jaundice,  are  cured  by  the  third.  Plethoric 
persons,  having  a  sanguine  humor,  are  relieved  by 
the  sounds  of  the  fourth  string.  Besides  being 
physic  for  the  body,  music  acts  as  a  great  purifier 
of  the  soul.  "  The  soul  purified  by  music,  longs  for 
communion  with  higher  beings  and  purer  spheres; 
and,  though  darkened  by  the  opaqueness  of  the 
body,  is  yet  prepared  for  conversation  with  the 
spirits  of  light,  standing  around  the  throne  of  the 
Almighty." 


28  WHAT  IS   MUSIC? 

YI. 

SCHOLASTIC   THE0EIE8. 

While  tlie  Arabic-Persian  philosophers  were 
occupying  thenjselves  with  their  fundamental  theo- 
ries of  music  in  the  East,  the  scholastics,  in  the 
West,  worked  out  no  less  curious  systems. 

According  to  them.  Tonus  is  the  progenitor  of 
all  the  tones  (modes).  The  son  of  Tonus  is  the  fii-st 
ecclesiastical  mode,  who,  in  turn,  is  father  of  the 
second,  brother  of  the  third.  The  second  tone  is 
grandson  of  Tonus — being  the  son  of  the  first  one, 
and  brother  of  the  fourth  mode,  etc.  The  an- 
cients beheld  in  music  manifestations  of  the  same 
causes  that  produced  the  elements,  or  the  planets. 
The  scholastics  believed  as  firmly  as  they  in  its 
symbolical  nature,  but  they  generally  conceived 
these  symbols  as  mysteriously  referable  to  the  Bible. 
The  relation  between  the  plagal  and  authentic 
modes  was  significant  of  the  chariot  with  wheels 
inside  of  one  another,  described  in  the  vision  of  Eze- 
kiel.  As  the  plagal  and  the  authentic  modes  have 
some  notes  alike  while  others  are  not,  they  are  sym- 
bolical of  the  concordance  and  div^gencies  of  the 


SCHOLASTIC  THEORIES.  29 

Evangelists.  The  four  tetracliords  point  to  the  life 
of  Christ.  The  gravium  is  the  type  of  Christ  walk- 
ing on  earth ;  the  finaliura,  of  his  death ;  the  supe- 
riorum,  •  of  his  rising  from  the  dead ;  the  excellen- 
tium,  of  his  ascension.  Two  tetrachords  are  typical 
of  his  humiliation  — two,  of  his  elevation.  The 
plagal  and  authentic  tones  are  four  bridal  pairs, 
coming  forth  from  the  Thalaraos  (bridal-chamber) 
which  is  the  intersection  of  the  two  wheels  in  the 
vision. 

Marchettus,  of  Padua,  exclaims :  "  How  admira- 
ble is  the  tree  of  music !  -Its  branches  are  ordered 
by  numerical  ratios ;  its  blossoms  are  concord ;  its 
fruit,  sweet  harmonies  ripening  from  the  blossoms." 

The  music  of  the  universe  is  a  great  unity,  and 
by  commqjid  of  God  it  governs  all  things  in  motion 
— all  things  that  move  in  heaven,  or  on  earth,  or  in 
the  sea,  all  that  which  sounds  in  the  voices  of  men 
and  animals — it  is  the  regulator  of  days  and  years. 

The  octave  is  the  symbol  of  justice.  The  fourth 
is  significant  of  the  four  seasons,  the  four  corners 
of  the  earth,  the  four  elements,  the  four  Evangel- 
ists, the  four  humors.  The  number  four,  whose 
Sinn  is  ten,  contains  all  numbers  within  itself.  In 
its  ratios  all  consonants  arc  expressed — 2  : 1  octave, 


30  WHAT   IS    MUSIC? 

3  :  2  fifth,  4  :  3  fourth,  3  : 1  twelfth,  4  : 1  double  oc- 
tave. It  was  not  without  reason  that  the  tones  of 
music  were  divided  into  sets  of  four  bj  the  first 
musicians. 

Nor  was  it  without  cause  that  all  music  was 
founded  on  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  modes ; 
for  music  depends  on  the  harmony  of  these  four 
modes,  as  the  cosmos  exists  onl}''  in  the  harmony  of 
the  four  elements.  The  elements  of  the  macro- 
cosmos  are  warm  fire,  damp  air,  dry  earth,  cold  water 
— but  the  elements  of  tlie  microcosmos,  which  is 
man,  are  the  four  humors — the  choleric,  sanguine, 
phlegmatic,  and  melancholic. 

Music  was  also  a  symbol  of  the  Church.  Like 
the  Church  it  is  a  great  homogeneity,  composed  of 
many  heterogeneous  parts.  Music  has  a  double 
character — it  is  cosmical  and  human  ;  the  Bible  is, 
in  like  manner,  divided  into  the  two  Testaments. 
The  Church  considers  two  manners  of  living — the 
active  life  and  the  contemplative  one.  Under  these 
same  aspects  miisic  may  be  regarded.  It  is  contem- 
plative with  him  who  has  it  in  his  heart  and  in  his 
memory  —  active  with  him  who  studies  it  from 
books.  The  former  manner  is  superior  to  the  latter 
— the  knowledge  of  music  cannot  be  wrenched  from 


SCHOLASTIC  THEORIES.  31 

liirn  who  has  it  in  his  memory  and  in  his  heart. 
The  authentic  and  plagal  modes  are  symbolical  of 
the  commandment  of  love;  the  former  of  love  to 
God,  the  latter  of  love  to  man.  The  three  octaves 
are  the  three  grades  of  penitence.  The  grave  is  the 
remorse  of  the  penitent  sinner.  The  acute  is  the 
confession.  The  sujperacute  is  the  remission  through 
his  acts  of  charity.  There  are  three  classes  of  in- 
struments—  Yasales,  Foraminales^  and  Chordales. 
They  are  symbolical  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity. 
A  composition  is  composed  of  a  first,  middle,  and 
final  part — significant  of  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity. 
The  four  ecclesiastical  modes  refer  to  the  four  car- 
dinal virtues — Prudence,  Temperance,  Bravery,  and 
Justice.  Music  is  written  on  four  lines,  without 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  recognize  a  mel- 
ody ;  in  like  manner  the  Church  bases  its  recogni- 
tions on  the  four  Evangelists.  Seven  sacraments 
are  the  keys  of  heaven ;  seven  clefs  open  the  gates 
of  music.  Eight  beatitudes  are  promised  by  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  in  recompense  of  the  four 
cardinal  virtues;  so  music  contains  eight  modes, 
based  on  the  four  authentic  ones.  The  nineteen 
tones  are  symbolical  of  the  nineteen  degrees  of  the 
Church,  which  begin  at  the  good  laymen  and  end 


33  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

with  the  hermits  aud  martyrs.  As  the  final  tone 
distinguishes  the  authentic  from  the  plagal,  so  will 
Christ  separate  the  sheep  from  the  goats ;  and  as 
the  beginning  and  middle  part  of  a  composition 
define  its  end,  so  will  the  beginning  and  middle 
part  of  life  define  the  end — whether  it  will  be  in  a 
blessed  or  unblessed  death. 


YII. 
etjler's  theokt. 


This  mystical  comparison  of  music  to  the  Church 
was  the  last  great  original  attempt  to  explain  the 
power  of  music  by  symbols.  The  next  fundamental 
theory,  the  one  developed  by  Euler  in  his  "  Tentamen 
Novae  Theorise  Musicae,"  is  characterized  throughout 
by  the  clear  and  cold  rationalism  of  the  eighteenth 
centur}'.  Euler  says  that  we  are  pleased  with  every 
thing  in  which  a  certain  degree  of  perfection  is 
manifested.  The  perfection  of  an  object  is  defined 
by  the  fact  that  all  its  heterogeneous  parts  act  in 
homogeneity  toward  a  certain  end.  Therefore, 
wherever  there  is  perfection,  we  find  order.     By 


EULER'S  THEORY.  33 

order  we  understand  that  all  the  parts  composing 
an  object  are  arranged  according  to  a  rule  from 
which  we  perceive  why  a  certain  part  should  be  in 
the  place  it  occupies  rather  than  in  any  other  place. 
In  every  perfect  thing  the  rule  of  arrangement  is 
defined  by  the  object  in  view.  This  is  the  reason 
why  order  is  more  agreeable  to  us  than  disorder. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  order  may  be  per- 
ceived. Either  we  know  the  law  from  which  the 
rule  of  arrangement  is  derived,  and  judge  the  ar- 
rangement by  comparison  with  the  law ;  or  we  do 
not  know  the  law,  and  endeavor  to  discover  it  by 
carefully  stud^'ing  the  arrangement.  The  latter  is 
the  case  in  music.  A  combination  of  tones  will 
please  us,  if  we  can  find  the  law  of  arrangement. 
This  explains  why  a  composition  may  be  pleasing 
to  one,  and  displeasing  to  another ;  for  one  hearer 
may  discover  the  law  of  arrangement,  while  another 
may  not.  In  the  proportion  that  the  law  is  easily 
perceived,  will  an  object  be  pleasing  to  us,  and  will 
it  engender  joyful  sentiments.  In  the  proportion 
that  the  law  is  difficult  to  find,  will  it  engender  sad- 
ness. 

Euler  then  adapts  his  theory  to  the  explanation 
of  the  aorreeable  eiFect  of  concords. 


34  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

In  tones,  order  is  manifested  in  duration  and  in 
pitch.  Order  in  pitch  we  designate  by  the  term 
interval,  order  in  duration  is  known  as  rhytlim.  In 
rhythm,  two,  three,  or  four  notes  of  one  part  may 
coincide  witli  one,  two,  or  three  notes  of  another 
part,  and  the  regularity  of  the  arrangement,  which 
is  easily  perceived,  causes  pleasure.  In  like  manner^ 
if  one,  or  two,  or  three  vibrations  coincide  with  two, 
three,  or  four  otfier  vibrations,  we  obtain  a  concord, 
our  ear  being  pleased  with  the  regularity  of  the  ar- 
rangement, which  manifests  order.  When  the  ra- 
tio of  the  vibrations  is  irrational,  a  dissonance  is 
produced  and  our  ear  is  offended. 

Euler  even  gives  a  mathematical  formula  in 
proof  of  his  assertion  that  the  pleasurable  sensa- 
tion caused  by  a  concord  is  attributable  to  the  reg- 
ularity of  the  arrangement  of  the  vibrations,  and 
that  concords  approach  perfection  in  proportion  as 
their  ratios  are  expressed  by  smaller  numbers. 

On  superficial  inspection  this  theory  seems  well 
founded.  The  most  perfect  consonance  is  the  uni- 
son, whose  ratio  is  1  : 1.  The  octave  comes  next,  its 
ratio  being  2 : 1.  Then  we  have  the  fifth,  3 :  2. 
Next  the  fourth,  4:3;  the  major  third,  5:4;  the 
minor  third,  6:5;  and  as  the  ratios  become  more 


EULER'S   THEORY.  35 

complicated,  the  intervals  are,  theoretically^  less  con- 
sonant. PractiGally^  however,  the  case  is  somewhat 
different.  Extremely  complicated  ratios  may  yet, 
virtually,  be  consonants. 

Let  us  take,  for  instance,  the  ratio  of  2  : 1.9999 ; 
this,  if  Euler's  theory  Avere  correct,  would  be  ex- 
tremely offensive  to  tlie  ear ;  in  reality,  however,  it 
is  a  perfect  consonance.  No  ear  would  be  able  to 
detect  any  want  of  concordance.  Then,  again,  how 
does  the  soul  discover  the  ratios  ?  In  rhythm  this 
is  an  easy  matter.  An  uneducated  man  can  hear 
whether  two,  or  three,  or  four  beats  of  a  certain 
kind  are  equivalent  to  one,  or  two,  or  three,  of  an- 
other kind.  But  how  is  one,  unacquainted  with  the 
science  of  acoustics,  at  all  capable  of  forming  an 
idea  of  ratios  of  vibrations  ?  Nay  more,  a  man  may 
make  this  subject  a  special  study,  and  still  would 
never  attempt  to  think  of  it  while  listening  to 
music ;  and  were  he  to  do  so,  it  would  rather  tend 
to  destroy  the  effect  that  the  music  would  other- 
wise have  upon  him. 


36  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

YIII. 
HEKBEKT    SPENCEr's    THEOKY. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the 
theory  of  Herbert  Spencer,  as  advanced  by  him  in 
his  article  "  The  Origin  and  Function  of  Music : " 

"  When  Carlo,  standing,  chained  to  his  kennel, 
sees  his  master  in  the  distance,  a  slight  motion  of 
the  tail  indicates  his  but  faint  hope  that  he  is  about 
to  be  let  out.  A  much  more  decided  wagging  of 
the  tail,  passing  by-and-by  into  lateral  undulations 
of  the  body,  follows  his  master's  nearer  approach. 
When  hands  are  laid  on  his  collar,  and  he  knows 
that  he  is  really  to  have  an  outing,  his  jumping  and 
wriggling  are  such  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to 
loose  his  fastenings.  And  when  he  finds  himself 
actually  free,  his  joy  expresses  itself  in  bounds,  in 
pirouettes,  and  in  scourings  hither  and  thither  at 
the  top  of  his  speed." 

"  Under  emotions  of  an  opposite  kind,  animals 
equally  display  muscular  excitement.  The  enraged 
lion  lashes  his  sides  with  his  tail,  knits  his  brows, 
protrudes  his  claws." 

"  In  children,  and  even  in  adults  who  are  not  re- 


HERBERT   SPENCERS    THEORY.  37 

strained  by  regard  for  appearances,  a  highly-agree- 
able taste  is  followed  by  a  smacking  of  the  lips."- 

"In  a  sensitive  person,  an  agreeable  perfume 
will  produce  a  smile;  and  smiles  will  be  seen  on 
the  faces  of  a  crowd  gazing  at  some  splendid  burst 
of  fireworks." 

"  Painful  sensations,  being  mostly  far  more  in- 
tense than  pleasurable  ones,  cause  muscular  actions 
of  a  much  more  decided  kind.  A  sudden  twinge 
produces  a  convulsive  start  of  the  whole  body.  A 
pain  less  violent,  but  continuous,  is  accompanied  by 
a  knitting  of  the  brows,  a  setting  of  the  teeth  or 
biting  of  the  lips,  and  a  contraction  of  the  features 
generally.  Under  a  persistent  pain  of  a  severer  kind 
other  muscular  actions  are  added :  the  body  is 
swayed  to  and  fro;  the  hands  clench  any  thing 
they  can  lay  hold  of;  and  should  the  agony  rise 
still  higher,  the  suiFerer  rolls  about  on  the  floor  al- 
most convulsed." 

"  Though  more  varied,  the  natural  language  of 
the  pleasurable  emotions  comes  within  the  same  gen- 
eralization. A  smile,  which  is  the  commonest  ex- 
pression of  gratified  feeling,  is  a  contraction  of  certain 
facial  muscles ;  and  when  the  smile  broadens  into  a 
laugh,  we  see  a  more  violent  and  more  general  mus- 


38  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

cular  excitement  produced  by  an  inteuser  grati- 
fication." 

"  All  feelings,  then  —  sensations  or  emotions, 
pleasurable  or  painful — have  this  common  charac- 
teristic, that  they  are  muscular  stimuli." 

" '  But  what  has  all  this  to  do  with  the  Origin 
and  Function  of  Music  ? '  asks  the  reader.  Yery 
much,  as  we  shall  presently  see." 

Then  follows  the  development  of  the  theory. 

It  begins  by  stating  that  all  music  was  original- 
ly vocal ;  that  all  vocal  sounds  are  produced  by  the 
agency  of  muscles,  and  that  muscles  are  subject  to 
contraction  by  pleasurable  and  painful  sensations; 
that,  therefore,  feeling  demonstrates  itself  in  sound 
as  well  as  in  motion ;  that,  therefore,  Carlo  barks  as 
well  as  leaps,  the  lion  roars  as  well  as  lashes  his 
sides;  that  in  anger  or  fear  gesticulations  are  ac- 
companied by  shouts  and  screams,  delightful  sensa- 
tions by  exclamations.   , 

"  "We  have  here,  then,  a  principle  underlying  all 
vocal  phenomena ;  including  those  of  vocal  music, 
and  by  consequence  those  of  music  in  general. 
The  muscles  that  move  the  chest,  larynx,  and  vocal 
chords,  contracting  like  other  muscles  in  proportion 
to  the  intensity  of  the  feelings ;  every  different  con- 


HERPERT  SPENCER'S    THEORY.  39 

traction  of  these  muscles  involving,  as  it  does,  a 
different  adjustment  of  the  vocal  organs ;  every  dif- 
ferent adjustment  of  the  vocal  organs  causing  a 
change  in  the  sound  emitted ;  it  follows  that  varia- 
tions of  voice  are  the  physiological  results  of  varia- 
tions of  feeling;  it  follows  that  each  inflection  or 
modulation  is  the  natural  outcome  of  some  passing 
emotion  or  sensation;  and  it  follows  that  the  ex- 
planation of  all  kinds  of  vocal  expression,  must  be 
sought  in  this  general  relation  between  mental  and 
muscular  excitements." 

I  do  not  think  that  it  will  be  necessary  for  me  to 
ci4:e  the  whole  development  from  these  data,  the  read- 
er who  may  be  interested  can  find  it  in  Mr.  Spencer's 
essay,  "  The  Origin  and  Function  of  Music,"  in  the 
work  entitled  "  Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress." 

His  resume  is  this :  "  Every  one  of  the  altera- 
tions of  voice  which  we  have  found  to  be  a  phys- 
iological result  of  pain  or  pleasure,  is  carried  to  its 
greatest  extreme  in  vocal  music.  For  instance,  we 
saw  that,  in  virtue  of  the  general  relation  between 
mental  and  muscular  excitement,  one  characteristic 
of  passionate  utterance  was  loudness.  Well,  its  com- 
parative loudness  is  one  of  the  distinctive  marks  of 
song,  as  contrasted  with  the  speech  of  daily  life ;  and 


40  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

further,  the  forte  passages  of  an  air  are  those  in- 
tended to  represent  the  climax  of  its  emotion.  "We 
next  saw  that  the  tones  in  which  emotion  expresses 
itself  are,  in  conformity  with  this  same  law,  of  a  more 
Bonorons  timbre  than  those  of  calm  conversation. 
Here,  too,  song  displays  a  still  higher  degree  of  the 
.peculiarity;  for  the  singing  tone  is  the  most  reso- 
nant wc  can  make.  Again,  it  was  shown  that,  from 
a  like  cause,  mental  excitement  vents  itself  in  the 
higher  and  lower  notes  of  the  register ;  using  the 
middle  notes  but  seldom.  And  it  scarcely  needs 
saying  that  vocal  music  is  still  more  distinguished 
by  its  comparative  neglect  of  the  notes  in  which  we 
talk,  and  its  habitual  use  of  those  above  or  below 
them ;  and,  moreover,  that  its  most  passionate  effects 
are  commonly  produced  at  the  two  extremities  of 
its  scale,  but  especially  the  upper  one." 

"  Once  more,  it  was  pointed  out  that  not  only 
•extreme,  but  also  rapid  variations  of  pitch,  are 
characteristic  of  mental  excitement ;  and  once  more 
we  see  in  the  quick  changes  of  every  melody,  that 
song  carries  the  characteristic  as  far,  if  not  farther. 
Thus,  in  respect  alike  of  loudness^  timhre,  pitchy 
intervalSy  and  rate  of  variation^  song  employs  and 
exaggerates  the  natural  language  of  the  emotions; — 


HERBERT   SPENCER'S  THEORY.  41 

it  arises  from  a  systematic  combination  of  those 
vocal  peculiarities  which  are  the  physiological  ef- 
fects of  acute  pleasure  and  paiji." 

"  The  rhythm  of  music  is  a  more  subtle  and 
complex  result  of  this  relation  between  mental  and 
muscular  excitement." 

On  first  inspection  Mr.  Spencer's  theory,  I  ad- 
mit, appears  very  plausible;  but  at  the  same  time  I 
venture  to  say  that  it  will  not  bear  critical  examina- 
tion. In  the  first  place,  his  conception  of  music 
appears  to  me  to  be  far  too  narrow.  He  considers 
music  an  invention  springing  from  the  human 
brain ;  but  this,  after  a  little  thought,  must  appear 
erroneous  to  every  one — music  is  not  a  human  in- 
vention, it  is  part  and  parcel  of  Nature.  The  laws 
of  vibration,  for  instance,  are  as  immutable  as  are 
those  of  gravity.  The  forms  of  vibration  are  deter- 
mined by  the  great  mechanical  law  of  the  parallelo- 
gram of  forces.  The  manner  in  which  a  string 
vibrates  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things  in 
Nature.  The  human  ear  is  of  a  most  marvelous 
and  intricate  construction,  and  its  wonders  and 
complications  have  for  the  Bole  object  the  distin- 
guishing of  musical  sounds,  with  regard  to  pitch 
and  quality;  a  comparatively  simple  arrangement 


42  WHAT   IS    MUSIC? 

would  have  sufficed  for  tlie  requirements  of  lan- 
guage. There  is  the  human  throat  with  its  remark- 
able arrangement  for  the  purposes  oi  song  alone.  A 
far  inferior  construction  would  have  served  the  pur- 
poses of  language,  or  for  the  production  of  sound 
incidental  to  muscular  excitement. 

But,  leaving  the  consideration  of  special  con- 
trivances, and  casting  our  eyes  on  the  broad  ex- 
panse of  Nature,  what  an  enormous  provision  is 
made  for  music!  What  an  immense  material  is 
placed  under  its  control !  It  can  subject  to  its  use 
almost  all  things  that  exist  in  space !  The  atmos- 
phere is  ever  prone  to  originate  music ;  always  pre- 
pared to  mediate  between  the  producing  instrument 
and  the  ear.  Water,  too,  is  an  originator  and  media- 
tor of  musical  sounds.  All  solid  bodies  have  a  prone- 
ness  for  music.  Before  man  appeared  on  the  face 
of  the  earth  the  waves  of  the  JEgean  Sea  sansr  their 
mournful  tones,  the  waters  sounded  forth  sad  music 
as  they  rushed  through  Fingal's  cave,  or  Bpent 
themselves  in  violent  breakers  on  the  German  shore. 
Did  not  singing-birds  exist  before  the  time  of  man? 
Did  they  evolve  their  singing  from  speech,  or  did 
they  develop  it  from  muscular  excitement  ?  or  did 
they  sing  because  it  was  natural  for  them  to  sing — 


HERBERT  SPENCER'S  THEORY.         43 

because   it  was  in  the  plan  of  Nature  that  they 
should  sing  ? 

Ko,  music  is  not  a  human  invention.  The  prog- 
ress in  musio  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  progress 
in  science,  it  is  based  on  discover^/.  The  other  arts 
are  imitative  of  things  in  Kature,  or,  like  archi- 
tecture, are  for  the  purpose  of  utility.  But  music 
is  a  very  part  of  Nature  itself.  If,  instead  of  say- 
ing music  was  developing  itself,  we  were  to  say, 
new  things  were  constantly  being  discovered  in  it, 
we  should  be  nearer  the  truth.  The  history  of 
music  fully  substantiates  my  assertion.  To  the 
ancients  music  was  a  most  wonderful  structure 
whose  gates  were  closed  and  barred.  TJiey  saw 
but  the  exterior,  and  yet  so  fascinating  was  that 
exterior  to  them,  that  they  imagined  a  marvelous 
interior,  and  were  constantly  at  work  in  forging 
keys  which  were  to  open  its  gates.  They  were  con- 
scious of  the  fact  that  an  immense  mass  of  material 
for  musical  purposes  was  existing,  but  they  were 
forced  to  labor  in  order  to  bring  that  mass  under 
subjection — in  order  to  discover  the  laws  which 
governed  and  regulated  it.  The  scales  were  no  more 
invented  than  were  the  laws  of  vibration.  Like 
the  latter,  they  were  discovered — discovered  after 


44  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

much  vain  labor.  The  slow  development  of  music 
is  attributable  to  the  very  greatness  of  its  subject- 
material.  Says  Helmholtz :  "  Music  finds  an  im- 
mensely rich  but  entirely  unformed  material  in  the 
tones  of  the  human  voice  and  musical  instruments, 
which  it  must  shape  according  to  purely  artistic 
principles.  'No  consideration  of  utility,  as  in  ar- 
chitecture—  no  imitations  of  Nature,  as  in  the 
plastic  arts  —  no  ready  symbols  of  sound,  as  in 
poetry — define,  bound,  or  limit  it  in  any  manner. 
The  freedom  in  the  use  of  the  material  is  un- 
bounded, but  it  is  infinitely  more  difficult  to  make 
gcod  use  of  absolute  freedom,  than  when  some  ex- 
trinsic marks  define  the  path  to  be  trodden — and 
this  explains  the  slow  development  of  music." 

It  is  hardly  within  the  scope  of  the  present  little 
work  to  give  a  detailed  criticism  of  Mr.  Spencer's 
theory',  what  has  already  been  said  being,  I  believe, 
quite  sufficient  to  show  its  want  of  solid  foundation. 
That  there  are  many  connections  between  speech 
and  music  is  understood  by  the  very  definition  of 
the  terms — for  speech  is  sound  and  subject  to  the 
laws  of  sound ;  and  that  vocal  music  should  have 
preceded  instrumental,  is  quite  natural,  for  the 
human  throat  is  the  first  musical  instrument  ever 


HERBERT  SPENCER'S  THEORY.         45 

subject  to  the  control  of  man.  Those  eharacteris 
tics  of  speech  which  belong  to  utterance  have, 
therefore,  some  musical  counterpart,  and  come  act- 
ually under  the  heading  of  the  internal  govern- 
ment of  the  scale.  An  excited  person,  whether  he 
speak  in  one  language  or  in  another,  will  by  his 
very  manner  of  utterance — whether  the  words  he 
speaks  be  comprehended  or  not — show  his  state  of 
mind,  just  as  passionate  music  distinguishes  itself 
from  calm  music — by  the  laws  governing  rhythm 
and  the  scale.  In  reading,  when  coming  to  a  full- 
stop,  we  use  the  tonic  of  our  speech  ;  &t  a  hali-stop 
the  mediant ;  at  an  interrogation-point,  the  domi- 
nant. All  these  inflections  depending,  as  we  see, 
primarily  on  the  internal  government  of  the  scale. 
As  far  as  loudness  is  concerned,  as  a  distinctive 
mark  of  song,  I  must  differ  from  Mr.  Spencer. 
Speech  may  become  louder  than  song,  without  once 
departing  from  any  thing  that  distinguishes  speech 
from  song.  I  think  him  mistaken  also  in  the  point 
he  makes  about  the  rate  of  variation.  If  music  had 
developed  from  muscular  excitement,  the  rates  of 
variation  would  have  been  extreme  in  the  begin- 
ning, and  gradually  reduced  by  good  judgment  and 
artistic  taste.    The  first  music  would  have  consisted 


46  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

of  very  close-lying  sounds,  or  rather  groups  of 
sound,  distributed  over  wide  ranges  of  pitch.  An 
animal  that  howls  does  so  in  no  appreciable  inter- 
.  vals,  but  in  continuous  sounds.  In  screaming,  it 
uses  the  highest  part  of  its  compass — in  moaning, 
the  lowest,  and  always  in .  continuous  sounds.  If, 
therefore,  music  had  originated  in  muscular  excite- 
ment, the  first  music  would  have  contained  an  ex- 
treme rate  of  variation,  which  would  have  been  di- 
minished by  degrees.  The  opposite,  however,  has 
been  the  case.  The  first  scale  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  is  the  Chinese,  with  but  five  tones.  The 
most  ancient  Hindoo  melodies  are  founded  on  a  scale 
of  seven  notes ;  it  is  true  that  their  system  contains 
quarter-tones  which  are  a  nearer  approach  to  con- 
tinuous sounds  than  our  half-tones,  but  these  were 
only  introduced  at  an  advanced  stage,  and  then  not 
for  practical  purposes,  but  to  show  the  arithmetical 
skill  of  the  philosophers  who  formed  the  system. 

In  fact,  what  authority  have  we  for  assuming 
so  tacitly  that  language  preceded  music  ?  Do  not 
all  things  rather  tend  to  prove  that  music  preceded 
language  ?  Music  is  natural — language  is  artificial. 
The  original  man  sang  long  before  he  talked.  All 
Nature  taught  him  to  sing.     He  uttered  sounds  for 


HERBERT  SPENCER'S    THEORY.  47 

the  mere  sake  of  their  beauty,  long  before  he  could 
have  taken  practical  advantage  of  these  sounds,  by 
ascribing  symbolical  value  to  them.  Language  is 
merely  local — music  is  universal !  Language  is 
one  of  the  functions  of  music — not  music  of  lan- 
guage. Music  is  greatly  aided  by  language,  but  it 
does  not  depend  upon  it.  Language,  however,  de- 
pends on  music ;  for  the  only  philosophical  manner 
by  wbicli  we  can  account  for  the  various  inflections 
and  modulations  of  the  voice,  which  give  life  to 
speech,  is  by  ordering  them  under  the  musical  laws 
regarding  the  scale  and  rhythm.  The  vital  prem- 
ise of  Mr.  Spencer's  theory  is,  therefore,  an  as- 
sumption by  no  means  warranted. 

With  regard  to  Mr.  Spencer's  historical  proofs, 
it  would  take  me  too  far  to  refute  them  here  in  de- 
tail. They  rest,  as  he  himself  implies,  mostly  on 
hearsay ;  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  they 
should  either  be  entirely  erroneous  or  merely  part- 
statements.  In  no  case,  however,  do  even  they  jus- 
tify the  conclusions  he  draws  from  them.  I  shall, 
also,  not  commit  the  unfairness  of  giving  piecemeal 
quotations  from  the  rest  of  his  argmnent,  in  which 
so  many  true  and  beautiful  sentiments  are  blended. 
One  thing,  however,  Mr.  Spencer  appears  to  forget, 


48  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

and  this  is,  tliat  melody  is  a  gift  of  Xature.  When 
Schubert  wrote  his  songs,  which  penetrate  into  the 
very  depth  of  our  hearts,  he  certainly  did  not  ar- 
range the  intervals  and  cadences  in  the  manner  Mr. 
Spencer  describes.  They  poured  from  his  brain, 
clear  and  fresh  as  the  M'ater  pours  from  the  moun- 
tain-spring. Melody  is  born  with  the  man,  it  can- 
not he  learned  or  acquired.  And  how  will  Mr. 
Spencer's  theory  account  for  the  feelings  o£  melan- 
clioly  which  come  over  us  when  we  hear  the  roaring 
waves  breaking  on  the  shore;  for  the  feeling  of 
terror,  when  tremendous  claps  of  thunder  rever- 
berate among  the  mountains ;  for  the  feeling  of 
sadness,  in  listening  to  the  moaning  wind  ;  for  the 
pleasurable  calmness^  in  sitting  by  the  babbling 
brook ;  or  for  the  blended  feelings  that  master  us 
when  on  a  summer  afternoon,  while  lying  in  the 
woods,  we  hear  birds  sing  amid  the  rustling  of  the 
leaves  ?  Is  it  rational  to  account  for  these  emo- 
tions by  a  method  according  to  which,  lii*st,  the 
emotions  must  cause  muscular  excitement ;  sec- 
ondly, this  muscular  excitement  must  extend  to 
the  organs  of  speech ;  thirdly,  that  the  entirely 
unmusical  sounds  thus  brought  forth  must  have 
developed   into   vocal   music,  for   which,   by-the- 


HERBERT  SPENCER'S  THEORY.        49 

way,  they  have  no  tendency  (for  the  softening  of 
which  they  are  susceptible  has  no  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  singing  quality  of  the  voice,  fine 
voices  being  known  to  be  as  common  among  the 
unrefined  as  among  the  refined) ;  fourthly,  that 
when  we  hear  such  manifestations  they  afiect  us  by 
some  fourth  or  fifth  hand  inexplicable  retrospective 
sympathy?  Is  this  rational,  I  repeat,  when  we 
know  that  we  are  afiected  in  a  primary  manner, 
without  the  intervention  of  any  kind  of  reasoning? 

The  following  quotation  cannot  be  considered 
*' piecemeal."  It  contains  a  categorical  propor- 
tion, couched  in  unequivocal  terms,  and  not  de- 
pendent, for  a  correct  understanding,  on  any  thing 
that  precedes  or  follows  it : 

"  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  tones  of  the 
human  voice  are  more  pleasing  than  any  others. 
Grant  that  music  takes  its  rise  from  the  modula- 
tions of  the  human  voice  under  emotion,  and  it  be- 
comes a  natural  consequence  that  the  tones  of  that 
voice  should  appeal  to  our  feelings  more  than  any 
others ;  and  so  should  be  considered  more  beautiful 
than  any  others.  •  But  deny  that  music  has  this  or- 
igin, and  the  only  alternative  is  the  untenable  posi- 
tion that  the  vibrations  proceeding  from  a  vocalist's 


50  WHAT   IS    MUSIC? 

throat  are,  objectively  considered,  of  a  higher  order 
tlian  tliose  from  a  horn  or  a  violin.  Similarly  with 
harsh  and  soft  sounds.  If  the  conclusiveness  of  the 
foregoing  reasonings  be  not  admitted,  it  must  be 
supposed  that  the  vibrations  causing  the  last  are 
intrinsically  better  than  those  causing  the  first; 
and  that,  in  virtue  of  some  preestablished  har- 
mony, the  higher  feelings  and  natures  produce  the 
one,  and  the  lower  the  other.  But,  if  the  foregoing 
reasons  be  valid,  it  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
that  we  shall  like  the  sounds  that  habitually  ac- 
company agreeable  feelings,  and  dislike  those  that 
habitually  accompany  disagreeable  feelings." 

I  would  beg  the  reader  to  mark  the  word  unten- 
able ;  for,  while  Mr.  Spencer  was  thus  treating  of  a 
remarkable  natural  phenomenon,  attempting  to 
make  it  conform  to  ideas  previously  conceived,  an- 
other philosopher  was  silently  at  work,  adding  the 
ingenuity  of  genius  to  the  long  experience  in  simi- 
lar labors,  and  wrested  the  secret  from  Nature.  He 
proved  that  the  untenable  position  alluded  to  by 
Mr.  Spencer  was  the  only  tenable  one — was  the  true 
cause  of  the  whole  matter.  Prof.  Ilelmholtz  dis- 
covered that  the  quality  of  sound  depended  on  a 
physical  cause  solely ;  on  iXieform  of  vibration  pro- 


HERBERT  SPENCER'S  inEORY.         51 

duced  bj  tlie  order  and  intensity  of  the  overtones. 
And  about  the  "harsh  and  soft  sounds?"  The 
same  authority  has  also  settled  that  question. 
Either  Mr.  Spencer  refers  to  isolated  or  to  simulta- 
neous sounds.  In  the  former  case,  the  harshness 
arises  from  unharmonious  overtones ;  the  softness 
is  owing  to  harmonious  overtones.  In  the  latter 
case,  this  harshness  or  softness  depends  on  the  ana- 
tomical structure  of  the  ear — dissonances  causing 
heatings,  consonances  being  pure  in  the  proportion 
that  they  are  free  from  these  beatings.  The  whole 
question  of  quality,  and  harshness  or  softness,  there- 
fore, is  definitely  removed  from  the  speculative 
fields  of  psychology,  to  the  demonstrable  ones  of 
natural  philosophy,  where  it  undoubtedly  did  prop- 
erly belong  from  the  first. 

Mr.  Spencer,  furthermore,  gives  as  a  strong  in- 
direct proof  of  his  theory,  that  "  on  no  other  ten- 
able hypothesis  can  either  the  expressiveness  or  the 
genesis  of  music  be  explained."  I  have  already  had 
occasion  to  say  that  I  believe,  on  the  contrary, 
that  his  theory  is  entirely  insufficient  to  account 
for  the  power  of  music  over  the  emotions ;  and  as 
for  the  genesis  of  music,  I  have,  likewise,  only  to 
repeat  a  remark  that  I  have  made  before,  namely, 


52  WHAT 'IS    MUSIC? 

that  music  is  not  a  human  invention,  but  a  cosmi- 
cal  agent.  Man  has  developed  it ;  but  for  its  gen- 
esis, if  that  question  should  interest  us,  we  must 
look  back  to  ages  before  the  advent  of  man. 


IX. 

HELMHOLTZ'S    THEOKT. 

And  now  let  us  cast  a  glance  into  the  writings 
of  Prof.  Helmholtz,  of  the  University  of  Berlin. 
In  my  estimation,  his  ideas  on  the  subject  are  a 
nearer  approach  to  the  truth  than  any  that  I  have 
yet  had  occasion  to  notice.  They  are  broad  and 
comprising,  and  rest  upon  tlie  strongest  natural 
proof.     They  are  objective,  and  not  subjective  : 

"Melody  is  motion  of  pitch.  The  imponder- 
able material  of  which  tones  are  composed  is  ad- 
mirably suited  to  follow  the  intentions  of  the  mu- 
sician, better  able  to  illustrate  all  kinds  of  motion 
than  the  lightest  ponderable  body  could  be.  Ra- 
pidity, ponderous  slowness,  steady  moving,  wild 
leaping,  all  these  different  characteristics  of  motion, 
and  innumerable  others,  may  be  represented  to  per- 


HELMHOLTZ'S  THEORY.  53 

fection  in  their  miuutest  shadings  and  most  intri- 
cate complications  and  combinations,  by  a  suc- 
cession of  tones.  Now,  while  music  expresses  these 
kinds  of  motion,  it  mirrors  the  state  of  mind  by 
which  they  were  called  forth ;  for  every  motion 
is  to  us  a  manifestation  of  the  forces  which  caused 
it,  and  we  form,  intuitively,  a  conception  of  the 
force  when  we  perceive  the  motion  in  which  it  is 
manifested-  This  is  true,  as  much  and  even  more, 
of  the  manifestations  of  force  of  the  human  will, 
and  for.  the  motions  caused  by  human  incentives, 
than  it  is  for  the  mechanical  motions  of  outward  Na- 
ture. Thus  it  is  that  the  melodious  motion  of  tones 
becomes  the  expression  of  human  states  of  mind, 
not  of  human  sentiments  (for  music,  unless  aided  by 
poetry,  does  not  accurately  define  a  subject),  but  of 
tfie  states  of  mind  which  produced  the  sentiments. 

"  Aristotle,  already,  had  had  this  conception  of 
music.  In  his  Twenty-ninth  Problem  he  asks, '  Why 
do  rhythms  and  melodies,  which  are  sounds,  adapt 
^  themselves  to  the  states  of  mind,  and  not  the  tastes, 
nor  the  colors,  nor  the  odors  ?  Is  it  because  they 
are  motions  like  the  actions  themselves?  The  very 
energy  which  lies  within  them  is  based  on  a  certain 
state  of  mind,  and  produces  a  certain  state  of  mind. 


54  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

But  such  is  not  the  case  with  the  tastes  and  the 
colors.'  And  at  the  end  of  the  Twenty-seventh 
Problem  he  says,  '  These  motions  (namely,  rhythms 
and  melodies)  are  active,  and  actions  are  the  signs 
of  the  states  of  mind.'  " 

"  Kot  music  alone,  other  motions  also,  are  able 
to  produce  these  results ;  particularly  do  moving 
waters,  be  they  in  the  form  of  water-falls,  or  of  the 
waves  of  the  sea,  make  an  impression  on  «8  simi- 
lar to  the  one  made  by  music.  Often,  and  for  a 
long  while  at  a  time,  do  we  enjoy  sitting  on  the 
shores  of  the  sea  to  watch  the  onpouring  weaves. 
Their  rhythmical  motion,  'showing  uniformity 
though  the  single  particles  are  constantly  changing, 
produces  upon  us  a  peculiar  sentiment  of  calmness 
and  rest,  while,  at  the  same  time,  we  are  impressed 
by  the  picture  of  a  mighty,  orderly,  and  beautifully 
symmetrized  life. 

"  The  motions  of  tone,  however,  are  superior  to 
the  motions  of  all  ponderable  bodies  in  the  nicety 
and  facility  with  which  they  accommodate  them- 
selves to  the  various  forms  of  expressiveness.  On 
this  account  the  chief  function  of  music  is  to  give 
expression  to  the  states  of  mind  in  2i primary  man- 
ner.    The  other  arts  can  do  so  only  in  a  secondary 


HELMHOLTZ'S  THEORY.  65 

manner,  bj  expressing  the  motives  which  produced 
the  states  of  mind,  or  by  giving  the  words,  the  ac- 
tions, the  outward  manifestations,,  which  poured 
from  the  states  of  mind. 

"  Yischer's  somewhat  "paradoxical  idea  that  '  the 
mechanism  of  the  emotions  is  best  studied  in  their 
musical  expression,'  is  correct ;  we  have,  in  fact,  no 
nleans  by  which  we  can  express  them  so  exactly 
and  so  -  delicately  as  by  representing  them  in 
music." 


PART    II. 


And  now,  having  faithfully  transcribed  the 
principal  fundamental  theories  of  music,  from  the 
remotest  antiquity  to  the  present  day,  I  ask,  with 
all  due  deference,  a  hearing  for  my  own  views. 

By  the  study  of  physical  sciences  we  find,  in  the 
first  place,  that  the  universe  is  governed  by  laws  ; 
by  further  investigations,  proceeding  from  phenom- 
ena or  manifestations  to  the  spiritual  essence  of 
things,  we  find  that  these  laws  are  subservient  to 
great  principles.  One  of  these  great  principles  is 
the  principle  of  Beauty.  Beauty  is  manifested  in 
three  great  forms — the  moral,  the  intellectual,  and 
the  physical.  These  three  classes  of  the  beautiful 
are  by  no  means  distinct  and  separate  things. 
They  are,  on  the  contrary,  closely  interlinked,  have 
great  analogies,  and  exercise  a  strong  reciprocal 
influence  upon  each  other ;  they  are,  in  fact,  but 
different  manifestations  of  the  identical  cause.  I 
cannot,  however,  at  present  attempt  to  treat  of  the 


VISIBLE  AND  AUDIBLE  NATURE.  57 

beautiful  in  the  absolute ;  nor  can  I,  difficult  as  it  is 
to  forbear,  enter  into  any  speculations  regarding 
the  great  original  analogies :  these  subjects  would 
lead  us  from  the  direct  road.  I  must  limit  myself 
to  the  consideration,  solely,  of  some  of  the  general 
essential  attributes  of  the  physically  beautiful. 

The  physically  beautiful  is  manifested  either  in 
things  in  Space  or  in  things  in  Time.  The  beauti- 
ful in  things  in  Space  is  opened  to  us  chiefly  by 
the  organ  of  vision  ;  the  beautiful  in  things  in 
Time,  chiefly  by  the  organ  of  hearing.  In  treating 
of  beauty  we  may,  therefore,  class  things  in  space 
under  the  general  head  of  visible  Ifature^  things  in 
Time  under  that  oi  audible  Nature. 

In  visible  IS^ature  beauty  is  a  direct  emanation 
of  Kature  itself,  which  has  taken  it  under  its  im- 
mediate charge,  and  developed  it  from  the  original 
voidness  without  admitting  of  intervention.  Here 
man  can  do  naught  but  imitate  the  beautiful.  In 
the  beautifying  of  audible  i^ature,  however,  Na- 
ture has  reserved  but  an  inferior  part  for  its  own 
unaided  self.  It  has  supplied  the  laws  under  which 
the  development  was  to  take  place,  but  it  has  left 
the  development  itself  chiefl}'^  to  the  absolute  con- 
trol of  man.     In  the  infinite  fields  of  Time  (if  this 


58  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

expression  may  be  allowable)  man  creates  the  beau- 
tiful. Kow  as  in  Time  the  science  and  art  of  music 
chiefly  do  for  Nature  that  which  in  Space  tlie  latter 
does  for  itself,  the  vast  importance  of  music  in  the 
cosmical  plan  is  self-evident.  The  whole  material 
of  time,  rhythm,  and  the  tones,  is  left  to  it  in  its 
chaotic  state  to  be  wrought  by  it  into  the  highest 
and  purest  forms  of  beauty. 

Yet  are  visible  and  audible  Nature  not  entirely 
independent  things,  with  no  connection  between 
them ;  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  esdremely  similar 
to  each  other  —  they  are,  in  fact,  but  different 
manifestations  of  an  identical  idea.  Of  their  great 
analogies  I  shall  briefly  treat  under  the  headings 
of  Space  and  Time,  of  Yihrations^  of  Color  and 
Proportion,  oi  Internal  Government,  and  oi  States 
of  Mind. 


I. 

SPACE   AND     TEVIE.  — (kEST   AND     MOTION.) 

Space  and  Time  are  the  prime  elements  of  the 
cosmos.  The  genesis  of  Nature  may  be  attributed 
to  Time  acting  on  Space.     What  they  are,  what 


SPACE  AND  TIME.  59 

may  be  their  true  essence,  wliether  they  be  real  or 
ideal,  whether  they  be  things  or  merely  names, 
whether  they  exist  or  be  nothings — all  these  ques- 
tions concerning  them  in  the  absolute  do  not  come 
within  the  scope  of  the  present  little  work.  I  shall 
merely  consider  them  from  the  relative  point  of 
view,  and  only  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  define  the 
position  of  music  in  the  cosmos.  For  this  purpose 
let  us  cast  a  glance  at  their  fundamental  charaC' 
teristics. 

Space  is  rest,  Time  is  motion.  •  Space  is  lifeless, 
Time  is  life.  Space  is  rest,  lifeless,  yet  in  conse- 
quence knows  no  death.  Time  is  motion,  life,  yet 
what  is  life  but  change,  and  what  is  change  but 
death?  And  still — eternal  antithesis! — though  in 
all  things  the  contrary  of  each  other,  they  are  yet 
the  counterparts  of  one  another ;  though  by  their 
very  definitions  the  opposites,  they  are  yet  wonder- 
fully similar ;  though,  subjectively,  essentially  an-* 
tagonistic,  they  are,  objectively,  but  different  mani- 
festations of  an  identical  idea !  For  what  is  Time  ? 
It  is  the  Space  of  motion,  the  Space  of  existence ! 

Both  exist  forever.  In  Space,  this  forever  is 
called  infinity ;  in  time,  eternity.  Yet  each  par- 
ticle of  Space  is  infinitesimal  but  eternal,  while 


60  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

each  particle  of  Time  is  eterjiitesiraal '  but  infinite. 
Each  particle  of  Space  is  infinitely  small,  but  it 
remains  the  same,  unchanged  through  all  ages ; 
each  particle  of  Time  is  infinitely  short,  yet  it  ex- 
tends through  the  whole  universe,  immeasurable 
even  in  the  imagination — it  is  infinite !  Space  is 
the  limitation  of  matter ;  all  things  material  must 
occupy  some  space.  Time,  however,  is  the  limita- 
tion of  the  spiritual,  our  very  thoughts  are  bounded 
by  it.  Space  may  therefore  be  considered  as  the 
essential  limitation  of  all  things  material — Time  the 
essential  limitation  of  all  things  whatsoever.  Ideas 
consequently  do  not  exist  in  space — ideas  are  life, 
they  exist  in  time.  The  inert  matter  only  exists  in 
space.  Matter  is  lifeless,  inactive,  put  in  motion- 
by  forces.  Forces  are  ideal,  they  exist  in  Time. 
Consequently  Time  and  Space  constantly  act  upon 
each  other.  But  Time  is  but  another  name  for 
Space — it  is  the  Space  of  motion. 

Now,  what  is  music  ?  The  heautifier  oi  Time, 
is  the  simple  and  categorical  answer — an  answer, 
too,  from  which  further  answers  to  all  questions 

*  I  have  taken  the  liberty  to  coin  this  word,  because  I 
know  of  none  in  the  English  language  by  which  I  could  have 
stated  the  antithesis  with  equal  exactness. 


SPACE  AND   TIME.  61 

ppringing  from  tlie  original  question  may  be  de- 
duced ;  an  answer  that  serves  as  the  corner-stone 
of  the  fundamental  theory  of  music  itself.  It  is 
to  adorn  the  ever-moving  Space  of  existence  that 
music  was  generated  and  the  germs  of  its  develop- 
ment were  placed  within  it.  In  the  Space  of  Rest, 
in  visible  Nature,  Kature  itself  has  undertaken  the 
task  of  beautifying.  And  there  she  has  lavished 
beauties  untold  and  unnumbered.  Beauty  reigns 
on  the  mountain  and  in  the  valley,  on  the  hill  and 
in  the  dale.  It  is  present  in  the  gentle  grove  as 
well  as  in  the  mighty  forest.  It  is  in  the  little 
brook  and  in  the  magnificent  ocean.  It  is  in  man 
and  woman,  in  the  birds,  in  the  plants — anywhere, 
everywhere,  it  meets  our  eyes,  if  we  will  but  see. 
There  are  beauties  of  all  kinds  and  degrees,  from 
the  sublime  to  the  graceful,  from  the  magnificent 
to  the  picturesque.  All  this  has  Nature  done  for 
Space — and  to  do  something  similar  for  Time  is  the 
grand  and  holy  object  of  music,  j 

The  materials  of  which  music  is  composed  exist 
only  in  Time,  and  here  we  have  the  explanation  of 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  music.  Time  is 
motion,  is  life,  yet  the  sure  bringer  of  change,  of 
death.     As  it  is  motion,  its  influence  upon  us  is 


63  WEAT  IS    MUSIC? 

emotional,  af^itating;  as  it  constantly  tells  us  of 
change  and  death,  it  awakens  the  feelings  of  mel- 
ancholy within  us.  Music,  as  it  beautifies  the  pass- 
ing moments,  yet  tells  us  that  they  are  passing, 
and  consequently  it  is  so  prone  to  cause  sadness. 

We  may  divide  the  pleasures  arising  from  the 
contemplation  of  the  beautiful  into  two  classes — 
pleasures  productive  of  joy,  and  those  productive 
of  sadness.  There  is  nothing  paradoxical  in  this 
division.  A  thing  that  is  beautiful  will  give  pleas- 
ure at  all  times,  though  it  may  at  the  same  time 
cause  sadness.  A  great  tragedy  will  give  pleasure, 
though  it  may  not  put  us  in  a  joyful  mood.  So  it 
is  with  a  beautiful  poem  on  a  tragic  subject.  In 
fact,  intense  and  exquisite  delight  is  perfectly  com- 
patible with  a  frame  of  mind  strongly  tinged  with 
melancholy.  I^ay,  even  more,  joyful  sensations, 
when  they  become  ecstatic,  generally  have  a  back- 
ground of  deep  sadness. 

!N^ow,  the  characteristic  state  of  mind  accom- 
panying the  contemplation  of  things  in  Space  is 
that  of  serene  joy.  Space  being  rest,  does  not  ex- 
cite the  more  powerful  emotions,  it  does  not  agi- 
tate. It  has,  on  the  contrary,  the  effect  of  calming 
and  quieting  the  mind.     I  am,  of  course,  speaking 


SPACE  AND  TIME.  63 

of  the  beautiful,  purely  as  such,  without  admitting 
of  associations  of  ideas.  These,  of  course,  often  ex- 
ercise a  powerful  influence,  and  cause  emotion  by 
their  own  force.  But  they  exist  as  much  for  music 
as  they  do  for  things  in  visible  IS^ature,  and  their 
consideration  at  present  would  only  cause  useless 
complications.  That  beauty  in  Space  has  the  ten- 
dency— and  very  strongly — to  create  a  serene  frame 
of  mind,  any  one  desirous  of  doing  so  can  easily 
test.  A  landscape  must  be  entirely  covered  with 
clouds,  be  exceedingly  gloomy,  before  it  causes  us 
to  be  sad.  Let  but  the  sun  appear  and  shine  upon 
the  clouds,  and  they  will  be  tinged  with  bright 
colors ;  the  scene  will  appear  more  cheerful  even 
than  were  there  no  clouds.  The  opposite  is  the 
case  in  music.  Often  a  single  minor  or  diminished 
chord,  introduced  into  a  gay  melody,  will  change 
its  entire  expression,  rendering  it  melancholy. 
Space  knows  naught  of  death,  its  particles  exist 
forever ;  its  beauties  are  therefore  prone  to  create 
joy.  Time  speaks  constantly  of  change  and  death ; 
its  particles  are  infinitely  short,  its  beauties  create 
sadness. 

Then,  again,  as  Aristotle  has  already  said,  what 
are  the  emotions  but  motions  ?     And  as  music  is 


64  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

motion,  its  effect  on  thera  must  be  great,  for  motions 
exercise  an  enormous  influence  on  like  motions, 
and  have  a  very  great  tendency  to  respond  to  like 
motions.  This  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  familiar 
with  the  operation  of  vibrations.  "  But,"  it  may  be 
objected,  '"  the  eye  is  also  an  organ  capable  of  dis- 
cerning motion."  To  this  I  answer,  that  we  are  at 
present  concerned  only  about  the  heautiful  in  mo- 
tion, and  that  this  is  chiefly  the  province  of  the 
ear.  The  heauiies  of  motion  open  to  the  perception 
of  the  eye  are  of  an  inferior  kind.  The  pleasures 
in  viewing  dancing  or  marching  do  not  really  come 
within  the  range  of  those  caused  by  the  contem- 
plation of  the  beautiful  in  the  highest  sense.  In 
the  motion  of  the  waves  of  the  sea,  we  are  more 
impressed  by  tlie  natural  association  of  ideas  than 
by  the  beauty  of  the  motion  itself. 

There  is,  indeed,  another,  higher  kind  of  motion 
in  visible  Nature — the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  Daily  the  sun  rises,  and  tranquilly  and 
majestically  pursues  its  course  in  the  firmament,  to 
set  amid  splendor  and  glory.  Then  the  stars  appear, 
and  with  equal  majesty  traverse  the  skies,  set  and 
rise  until  the  king  of  day  again  ascends  from  the 
horizon  and  eclipses  them  by  the  exceeding  power 


SPACE  AND    TIME.  65 

of  his  light.  Nor  is  this  motion  h'mited  to  the  day 
and  night ;  as  the  year  moves  on,  sun  and  stars 
move  with  it.  This  month  the  sun  rises  in  one 
sign,  the  next  month  in  another,  until  he  has 
traversed  the  whole  circle  of  the  zodiac.  This 
month  Arcturus  is  the  proudest  of  the  starry  host 
shining  high  above ;  in  the  next  he  is  already  de- 
throned, and  bright  Antares  for  a  brief  time  as- 
sumes his  honor.  But  the  beautiful  imperial  Lyra 
follows  in  the  wake,  and  in  her  turn  claims  homage 
as  chief  of  the  stars.  Less  steady  wanderers,  too, 
are  there  in  the  heavens,  the  planets  moving  un- 
concerned in  their  orbits,  now  visible  here,  now 
there.  The  lovely  moon,  queen  of  the  night,  pur- 
sues her  tranquil  course.  Now  seen  but  as  a  silver 
thread  in  the  west,  she  waxes  lovelier  and  prouder 
as  she  approaches  the  east,  until  she  almost  rivals 
the  sun  in  the  refulgency  of  her  light — but  it  is 
only  to  wane  and  wane  again,  until  she  is  seen  no 
more. 

There  is,  too,  the  subtile  motion  of  the  seasons. 
Now  the  forest  is  in  the  garb  of  a  beautiful  green, 
the  garden  is  fragrant  with  flowers,  the  trees  are 
loaded  with  fruits,  the  fields  teem  with  the  heaving 
com.   Soon  the  green  changes  into  numerous  varie- 


66  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

ties  of  color,  the  leaves  fall  and  strew  tlie  ground, 
tlie  flowers  are  plucked  from  the  garden,  the  corn 
is  gathered  from  the  fields.  Then  comes  winter ; 
snow  covers  the  ground,  the  water-oourses  of  the 
mountains  and  the  rivers  of  the  valleys  are  turned 
into  ice,  cold  and  bright,  the  mild  breezes  give  way 
to  the  fierce  blasts  of  the  storm.  But  spring  fol- 
lows close  behind,  and  wafts  the  breath  of  life  be- 
fore him.  The  snow  melts,  the  ice  thaws,  the 
mountain-torrents  tear  on  with  renewed  arid  ten- 
fold increased  vigor;  the  pulse  of  Nature  throbs 
with  the  freshness  of  youth.  Soon  all  is  again  in 
bloom,  the  trees,  are  white,  the  plants  begin  to 
shoot  forth.  Then  summer  is  here  once  more,  and 
the  course  of  the  year  begins  anew 

The  motions  of  the  spheres  and  of  the  seasons 
are,  indeed,  full  of  sublimity.  The  ancient  philos- 
ophers and  their  followers  unto  recent  times,  how- 
ever, saw  in  them  yet  the  workings  of  music.  All 
these  motions  were  to  them  but  the  visible  manifes- 
tations of  a  transcendental  harmony.  Therefore 
does  the  Pythagorean  say,  "It  is  the  business  of 
music,  not  only  to  preside  over  the  voice  and  musi- 
cal instruments,  but  even  to  harmonize  aU  things 
contained  in  the  universe."     Therefore  does  the 


SPACE  AND   TIME.  67 

Scholastic  exclaim,  "  The  music  of  the  universe  is  a 
great  unity,  and  by  command  of  God  it  governs  all 
things  in  motion-rail  things  that  move  in  heaven, 
or  on  earth,  or  in  the  sea,  all  that  which  sounds  in 
the  voices  of  men  and  animals — it  is  the  regulator 
of  days  and  years.''^ 

A  similar  sentiment  inspired  Shakespeare  when 
he  wrote  : 

"...  Look  how  the  floor  of  heaven 
Is  thick  inlaid  with  patines  of  bright  gold ; 
There's  not  the  smallest  orb,  which  thou  beholdst, 
Bat  in  his  motion  like  an  angel  sings, 
Still  quiring  to  the  young-eyed  cherubins. 
Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls ; 
But,  whilst  this  muddy  vesture  of  decay 
Doth  grossly  close  it  in,  we  cannot  hear  it." 

If  I  were  asked  to  give  my  own  views  on  these 
motions,  I  should  say  that  I  do  not  believe  that 
they  properly  come  under  the  head  of  the  beauti- 
ful in  motion.  If  we  admire  the  landscape,  or  look 
up  to  the  starry  vault  of  heaven,  our  purely  ajsthet- 
ical  pleasure  does  not  take  in  the  factor  of  motion. 
It  is  continuous  and  imperceptible  to  the  eye — ^it  is 
only  by  the  aid  of  memory  that  we  know  that  it 
exists,  and  the  feeling  of  awe  connected  with  it 


68  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

arises  solely  from  the  association  of  ideas.  Indeed, 
if  we  wish  thoroughly  to  examine  an  object  in 
Space,  we  require  it  to  be  perfectly  at  rest — its 
motion  as  a  rule  has  a  tendency  to  confuse  us ;  and, 
if  the  motion  be  rapid,  the  object  becomes  blurred. 
The  very  life  of  the  beautiful  in  audible  Nature, 
however,  is  motion — it  exists  in  Time  and  not  in 
Space. 

As  Time  and  Space — visible  and  audible  Na- 
ture— are  the  counterparts  of  each  other,  there  must 
be  great  analogies  in  the  manner  in  which  beauty 
19,  perceived  and  produced  in  either.  Of  the  anal- 
ogies of  perception  I  shall  now  treat,  under  the 
heading  of  vibrations. 


II. 

VIBEATIONS. 


"We  perceive  things  in  visible  Nature  by  means 
of  light — things  in  audible  Nature,  by  means  of 
sound.  To  one  unacquainted  with  physics,  light 
and  sound  are  entirely  distinct  phenomena,  having 
no  connection  whatever  with  each  other,  and  yet 


VIBRATIONS.  69 

tiiey  are  intrinsically  very  nearly  related  to  each 
other,  being  but  different  manifestations  of  the 
same  cause.  Vibrations  of  a  certain  rapidity  are 
perceived  by  the  instrument  constructed  to  respond 
to  them — the  ear,  as  sound ;  vibrations  of  greater 
rapidity  are  perceived  by  the  instrument  con- 
structed to  respond  to  them  —  the  eye,  as  light. 
And  not  only  are  they  produced  by  the  same  cause, 
they  are  also  propagated  by  the  same  means 
— undulations.  Entering  into  details,  we  find  the 
analogies  between  the  two  phenomena  in  almost 
all  of  the  principal  manifestations.  Some  bodies 
are  transparent,  others  translucent,  others  again 
opaque  to  light ;  in  like  manner  some  bodies  per- 
mit sound  to  pass  on  through  them  without  practi- 
cally enfeebling  it ;  others,  like  thick  walls,  trans- 
mit it  much  weakened ;  while  others  again  do  not 
transmit  it  to  any  appreciable  degree.  An  instance 
of  the  last  case  is  a  tunnel.  To  any  one  standing 
at  a  distance,  the  roar  of.  a  train  entering  it  is 
hushed,  and  remains  so  until  the  cars  emerge,  when 
it  is  immediately  renewed. 

Some  of  the  principal  properties  of  light  are 
absorption,  reflection,  refraction,  and  diffraction. 
These  are  also  tlio  properties  of  sound.     That  it 


70  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

may  be  absorbed  can  easily  be  tested,  by  compar- 
ing tbe  sound  of  a  musical  instrument  in  a  carpeted 
and  furnished  room  with  that  of  one  heard  in  an 
empty  room.  The  echo  is  a  familiar  illustration 
of  reflection  of  sound.  The  experiments  of  Sond- 
hauss  and  Hajech  prove  conclusively  that  it  is 
refracted  when  it  enters  a  medium  whose  density 
differs  from  the  one  it  leaves,  in  the  same  manner 
and  under  the  same  conditions  as  is  light.  The 
diffraction  of  sound  has  been  demonstrated  by 
Seebeck. 

It  is,  however,  not  only  in  the  physical  mani- 
festations of  sound  and  light  that  we  discover  great 
analogies ;  the  construction  of  the  instruments  for 
tlieir  perception — the  eye  and  ear — is  essentially 
based  on  analogous  plans.  Like  the  ear,  the  eye  is 
a  membranous  structure.  The  ear  is  composed  of 
three  parts — the  auditory  canal,  with  the  tympa- 
num, the  tympanic  cavity,  and  the  labyrinth.  The 
corresponding  parts  of  the  eye  are  the  sclerotic  coat, 
the  choroid  coat,  and  the  iris.  The  aqueous  and 
vitreous  humors  present  strong  points  of  resem- 
blance with  the  water  of  the  labyrinth.  The  dif- 
ference between  light  and  sound  is  not  in  kind,  but 
in  degree.  Extremely  rapid  vibrations  produce  light ; 


VIBRATIONS.  71 

slower  ones,  sound.  The  rapid  vibrations  have, 
however,  a  proportionately  small  amplitude ;  slower 
vibrations  a  proportionately  large  amplitude.  Hence 
the  difference  in  the  anatomy  of  the  eye  and  the 
ear.  The  first  is  prepared  to  receive  and  respond 
to  vibrations  of  enormous  rapidity  and  small  am- 
plitude ;  the  latter  to  receive  and  respond  to  vibra- 
tions of  comparative  slowness,  but  with  a  relatively 
large  amplitude. 

Tones  and  colors  are  essentially  the  same  things. 
Colors  are  tones  of  tremendous  height  of  pitch. 
Tones  are  colors  of  tremendous  depth  of  pitch. 
The  ear  perceives  as  tones  from  8  (Savart)  to  38,016 
(Dupretz)  vibrations  in  a  second.  The  eye  per- 
ceives as  light  from  458,000,000,000,000  (extreme 
red)  to  727,000,000,000,000  (extreme  violet)  vibra- 
tions per  second.  From  the  most  acute  tone  ca- 
pable of  being  perceived  by  the  ear  to  the  extreme 
red  color  there  is,  therefore,  an  interval  of  about 
thirty-four  octaves.  To  give  an  illustration  of  the 
enormity  of  such  an  interval,  let  us  take  the  length 
of  the  string  of  the  highest  C  of  a  seven  and  a 
quarter  octave  piano-forte,  wliich  is  about  If  inch, 
and  it  will  be  easy  to  calculate  that  a  string  of  the 
same  material  and  thickness,  in  order  to  produce 


72  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

the  extreme  red  liglit,  would  have  to  be  cut  down 
to  about  loooooooooo  of  an  inch  !  The  rapidity  of 
the  vibrations  detines  the  length  of  the  undulations ; 
the  length  of  a  sonorous  wave  produced  by  8  vibra- 
tions per  second  is  140  ft. ;  the  length  of  a  lumi- 
niferous  undulation  in  the  extreme  violet  ray  is 
TffiroirVinr  ^^  ^^  inch;  otherwise  expressed,  while  of 
the  former  there  would  be  but  37f  in  a  mile,  in  the 
latter  there  are  59,150  in  an  inch  ! 

Rapidity  of  the  vibrations  is,  however,  the 
means  of  distinguishing  tones  from  tones,  and  colors 
from  colors,  as  well  as  tones  from  colors ;  and  con- 
sequently, difference  in  rapidity  of  vibrations  solely, 
cannot  be  considered  an  intrinsic  difference. 

The  principal  phenomena  connected  with  colors 
■ — analysis  and  interference — are  also  proper  to 
tones. 

For  colors  the  triangular  prism  acts  as  ana- 
lyzer ;  for  tones  that  office  is  performed  by  resona- 
tors. Prof.  Helmholtz  has  constructed  a  series  of 
the  latter,  which  serve  as  analyzers  for  isolated 
tones — by  resolving  them  into  the  fundamental 
and  overtones — aS  well  as  for  those  tones  of  com- 
bination produced  by  the  simultaneous  existence 
of  two  or  more  independent  tones.     Interference 


COLORS  AND  FORMS.  73 

in  sonorous  waves  lias  been  demonstrated  ocularly 
as  well  as  auricularly  by  numerous  apparatus. 

Having  now  sufficiently  illustrated  the  identity 
of  the  manner  of  perception  of  the  beautiful  in 
visible  and  audible  Kature,  I  shall  proceed  to  the 
consideration  of  the  fundamental  analogies  regard- 
ing the  production  of  the  beautiful  in  Space  and 
Time. 


III. 

COLORS   AND   FORMS. 

The  elements  of  the  beautiful  in  Space  are 
colors  and  forms.  The  counterpart  of  colors  hav- 
ing been  found  in  tones,  there  remains  but  the 
question,  "  Is  there  also  a  counterpart  of  forms  to 
be  found  in  music?"  This  question  I  answer  cate- 
gorically in  the  affirmative :  Hhythm  is  the  shape^ 
form,  or  proportion  of  things  in  Time  i  and 
shape,  form,  or  proportion,  is  the  rhythm  of  things 
in  Space.  And  this  answer  is  not  based  on  any 
arbitrary  ideas,  but  on  incontestable  facts — ^facts 
as  indisputable  as  is  the  theorem  that  colors  are 
the   tones  of  Space.      Time  is  but  the  Space  of 


74  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

motion,  and  rhjtlim  defines  that  Space  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  Space  of  rest  is  defined  by  forms. 
The  lines  of  Space  are  translated,  as  it  were,  into 
Time,  by  its  means.  On  entering  into  an  inves- 
tigation of  the  prime  principles  of  morphology, 
we  find  that  the  straight  line  and  the  curve  are 
the  fundamental  types  of  form.  In  like  manner, 
the  fundamental  types  of  rhythm  are  found  in 
the  dual^  and  in  the  trijole  metre.  The  geomet- 
rical point  is  an  impossibility — so  is  single  metre. 
The  reason  is  plain.  Rhythm,  like  form,  is  based 
on  proportion ;  in  otlier  words,  on  relativity.  We 
have  no  perception  of  rhythm  on  hearing  a  single 
beat.  A  beat  must  be  defined  and  bounded  by  a 
second  one  to  become  a  metre,  i.  e.,  a  measure  of 
Time.  The  analogy  between  dual  metre  and  the 
straight  line,  and  triple  metre  and  the  curved  line, 
is  by  no  means  a  fanciful  conception — it  has  been 
intuitively  felt  by  musical  composers  in  all  times ; 
and  tones  spread  over  rhythms  as  colors  do  over 
forms. 

We  cannot,  however,  overlook  the  remarkable 
fact  that,  while  in  visible  Nature  colors  play  the 
subordinate  and  forms  the  principal  part,  the  order 
is  reversed  in  audible  Nature,  where  rhythm  is  sub- 


COLORS  AND  FORMS.  75 

ordinate  to  tones.  Well,  this  is  necessitated  by  the 
fundamental  characteristics  of  Space  and  Time,  rest 
and  motion.  In  Space,  things  may  remain  at  rest ; 
our  eyes  can  take  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  simul- 
taneously. They  have  time  to  examine  beauty — 
extend  comparisons  over  a  wide  field.  Forms  and 
proportions  may  establish  themselves  in  unlimited 
variety;  for  we  have  coexistence  on  a  large  scale. 
Time,  however,  is  motion.  In  it,  proportions  and 
forms  are  perceptible  by  their  very  motion,  and  only 
by  motion  ;  one  tone  vanishes  as  the  next  comes  on. 
Here  there  is  no  room  for  such  an  extreme  variety 
of  forms ;  rhythms  (though- they  may  yet  be  infinitely 
varied  and  complicated)  must  be  much  simpler  than 
the  forms  of  visible  Nature. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  tones,  which  constitute 
the  material  of  melody,  embrace  about  seven  and 
a  half  octaves,  good  for  practical  purposes ;  while 
the  colors  do  not  extend  over  more  than  one  octave. 
This  octave,  even,  is  not  entirely  visible  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  its  eighth  degree  being  that 
which  is  called  the  lavender  light  of  Herschel,  and 
only  produced  by  concentration.  Practically,  the 
whole  combination  of  colors  does  not  exceed  the  in- 
terval of  a  seventh.    There  are,  therefore,  conclusive 


76  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

reasons  why  the  chief  riches  of  visible  Nature  lie  in 
forms,  while  the  chief  riches  of  audible  Nature  are 
in  tones. 

There  is,  however,  another  factor  besides  melo" 
dy  and  rhythm,  that  enters  into  the  composition 
of  music — harmony ;  and  it  ^lay  be  asked  whether 
any  analogy  for  it  can  be  found  in  visible  Nature. 
To  this  question  I  reply  that  the  fundamental  theory 
of  musical  harmony  lies  in  the  very  nature  of  Time. 
Each  particle  of  Space  is  infinitely  small,  consequent- 
ly no  two  things  can  occupy  the  same  space.  Each 
particle  of  Time,  on  the  contrary,  is  infinitely  large 
— embracing  the  whole  cosmos — consequently  an 
infinite  number  of  things  can  occur  at  the  same 
time.  Space,  however,  is  rest,  and  the  mind  can 
therefore  take  in  a  large  number  of  particles  of 
Space  at  once.  Time  being  motion,  does  not  admit 
of  perceiving  more  than  one  of  its  particles  at  once ; 
and,  therefore,  the  simultaneity,  compatible  with  it, 
acts  as  a  certain  compensation  for  those  advantages 
which,  by  its  definition,  rest  has  over  it.  I  am,  of 
course,  using  the  word  harmony  in  its  narrow  sig- 
nification, in  the  sense  of  counterpoint,  and  not  in 
its  spiritual  meaning.  In  the  latter  higher  sense,  it 
pervades  the  whole  universe,  existing  both  in  Space 


COLORS  AND    FORMS.  77 

and  in  Time ;  the  soul  of  the  cosmos,  says  Plato, 
is  musical  harmony.  The  whole  topic  of  colors,  and 
forms,  and  rhythms,  and  tones,  and  harmony,  to- 
gether with  them  any  analogies  of  detail  in  these 
matters,  is  a  tempting"  and  prolific  subject  for 
speculation.  I  shall,  however,  resist  the  temptation 
of  going  any  further  into  the  matter,  for  it  is  beyond 
my  scope  in  this  little  work  to  introduce  any  but 
plainly  demonstrable  facts.  One  thing  only  I  must 
yet  allude  to ;  and  this  is,  that,  in  instituting  com- 
parisons between  the  beautiful  in  Space  and  in  Time, 
we  should  never  forget  that  in  the  former  case  the 
task  of  beautifying  has  been  undertaken  by  Nature 
itself  with  the  unbounded  resources  at  its  com- 
mand, while  in  the  latter  it  is  left  to  the  limited 
means  of  man.  "Were  Nature  to  beautify  Time  as  it 
does  Space — could  we  hear,  for  instance,  such  a  thing 
as  the  harmony  of  the  spheres — the  sublimity  of 
such  music  might  transcend  all  possible  conceptions. 
And  now  we  leave  the  field  of  the  material  anal- 
ogies, respecting  the  perception  and  production  of 
the  beautiful  in  Space  and  Time,  to  enter  into  that 
of  (what  may  be  termed)  the  spiritual  analogies. 
Those  of  production  I  shall  class  under  Internal  Gov- 
ernment^ those  of  perception  under  States  of  Mind. 


78  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

lY. 

INTERNAL   GOVERNMENT. 

Several  of  tlie  great  forces  which  we  see  mani- 
fested in  visible  Nature  have  their  counterparts  in 
audible  ISTature,  and  prime  among  these  are  the 
forces  of  gravity  and  attraction  and  the  centrifu- 
gal force.  I  am  not  aware  that  any  writer  has  ever 
had  the  boldness  to  make  this  assertion  in  so 
positive  a  manner,  but  certainly  the  influence  of 
the  first  over  music  has  been  instinctively  felt  in 
all  times  and  among  all  nations,  while  that  of  the 
last  two  was  discovered  as  soon  as  it  could  have 
been,  namely,  in  the  first  stages  of  the  development 
of  the  science  of  harmony. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  musical  scale  is  the 
tonic.  The  whole  history  of  music  tends  to  confirm 
this  in  an  unequivocal  manner.  I  have  before 
me,  as  I  write,  a  volume  of  August  Wilhelm  Am- 
bros,  wherein  I  find  scraps  of  melodies  from  the 
land  of  the  Esquimaux  and  from  the  Friendly  Isl- 
ands, from  New  Zealand  and  from  Abyssinia,  from 
Gorea  and  from  Senegal.  Besides  these,  a  number 
of  finished  Chinese  melodies,  a  number  of  beautiful 


INTERNAL  GOVERNMENT.  79 

Bongs  of  Ilindostan,  together  with  Arabian,  Per- 
sian, and  Turkisli  airs,  and  two  of  the  three  ancient 
Greek  nomoi  that  have  come  down  to  us ;  and  in 
each  one  of  them,  frona  tutored  and  from  untutored 
peoples,  the  audible  manifestation  of  the  principle 
of  gravity  is  unmistakably  discernible;  all  the  tones 
gravitate  toward  their  common  centre — the  tonic. 
A  characteristic  passage  from  the  writings  of  Aris- 
totle proves  indeed,  beyond  doubt,  that  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  force  of  the  tonic  was  not  only  ap- 
parent in  the  practice  of  music  of  the  ancients,  but 
that  they  were  also  aware  of  its  spiritual  relation  to 
the  other  degrees  of  the  scale,  and  attempted  to  ac- 
count for  it  philosophically.  "  Why  is  it,"  he  asks, 
'*  that,  when  the  tonic  imese)  is  changed  (sharpened 
or  flattened),  all  the  other  strings  sound  out  of  tune, 
but,  if  the  tonic  is  in  tune,  and  one  of  the  other 
strings  is  changed,  only  the  changed  string  sounds 
out  of  tune  ?  Is  it  because  not  only  all  the  strings 
are  tuned,  hut  also  that  they  are  tuned  with  respect 
to  the  tonic,  and  that  the  latter  defines  the  order  in 
which  they  appear  ?  But  when  the  basis  of  the 
tuning  and  that  which  keeps  (the  melody)  together 
is  taken  away,  there  can  no  longer  be  the  same  kind 
of  order."     But  should  the  reader  be  disinclined  to 


80  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

accept  tlie  testimony  of  a  single  person,  no  matter 
of  what  importance  it  may  be,  I  have  still  another 
powerful  proof  in  support  of  my  argument  to  bring 
forward.  Let  lis  cast  a  glance  into  pre-Ptolemaic 
astronomy,  and  what  do  we  find  ?  That  the  prime 
principles  of  modern  astronomy,  those  contained  in 
the  Copernican  system,  were  essentially  known  and 
taught  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  by  Pythagoras. 
His  doctrine  was,  that  the  sun  is  tlie  centre  of  the 
universe,  and  that  the  earth  has  a  diurnal  motion 
around  its  axis,  and  an  annual  motion  around  tlie 
Bun  !  1^0 w,  we  have  already  seen  (in  an  earlier  part 
of  this  little  work)  that  the  planets  and  the  sun 
were  compared  and  considered  mysteriously  related 
to  the  tones  of  the  scale.  And  the  sun,  the  central 
sphere,  was  supposed  to  be  the  mese  of  the  scale — 
the  manifestation  of  the  principle  embodied  in  the 
tonic.  Cicero,  however,  did  not  believe  in  the 
Pythagorean  doctrine  of  the  revolution  of  the 
planets  around  the  sun.  He  was  of  the  opinion 
that  the  sun  and  planets  revolve  around  the  earth, 
which  remains  stationary.  And,  in  consequence, 
too,  he  changed  the  Pythagorean  division  of  the 
scale  among  the  heavenly  bodies :  the  sun  was  no 
longer  mese^  it  became  simply  the  lichanos  hypaton. 


INTERNAL  GOVERXMENT.  81 

But  what  did  lie  do  with  the  mese  ?  It  could  not 
be  given  to  the  earth,  because  she,  being  stationary, 
represented  silence ;  so  he  made  mese  symbolical  of 
the  whole  expanse  of  the  firmament ! 

In  the  ninth  century,  Huebald  de  St.  Amand 
worked  out  his  "  Organum,"  the  first  step  toward 
modern  harmony.  One  of  the  first  results  of  his 
discovery  was  the  introduction  of  the  leading  note  in- 
to the  musical  scale — the  forced  recognition  of  the 
second  great  governing  principle  of  the  scale — at- 
traction. By-and-by  retards  came  into  use,  and 
showed  that  this  attraction  acted  in  a  dual  manner 
— upward  and  downward.  The  analogy  between 
it  and  magnetic  attraction  with  its  two  poles  must 
I  think,  strike  every  one — the  attraction  of  one  pole 
manifested  in  the  retard  and  the  resolution  of  the 
seventh,  that  of  the  other  in  the  alteration  and 
leading-note. 

The  dominant^  which  is  in  all  respects  the  con- 
trary of  the  tonic,  is  the  audible  manifestation  of  the 
centrifugal  force.  In  our  modern  system  of  har- 
mony, where  the  principle  of  tonality  is  fully  un- 
derstood and  recognized,  the  intensity  of  this  force 
is  even  considerably  increased  by  the  fact  that  the 
dominant  is  likewise  the  tonic  of  the  next  related 


82  WHAT   IS    MUSIC? 

key,  and  consequently  as  siicli  exercises  an  extrane- 
ous attraction,  tending  to  oppose,  by  a  secondary 
gravity,  the  force  of  gravity  in  the  tonic. 

And  now,  remembering  that  the  emotions  are 
motions,  and  consequently  in  sympathy  with  like 
motions,  we  cannot  but  be  convinced  that  the  fore- 
going facts  serve  as  explanation  for  many  of  the 
characteristic  efiects  which  music  has  on  our  etno- 
tions.  The  centre  of  gravity,  manifested  in  the 
tonic  of  the  musical  scale,  is  likewise  manifested  in 
the  emotions  expressive  of  satisfaction.  I  am  using 
this  word,  not  in  the  sense  of  contentment,  but  in 
contradistinction  to  the  term  suspense;  this  satis- 
faction need,  of  course,  not  have  any  gay  or  even 
cheerful  sentiments  connected  with  it;  it  may  in 
fact  be  accompanied  by  extreme  despondency  :  it  is 
but  the  relief  from  suspense,  or  typifying  suspense 
as  the  question — it  is  the  answer.  The  centrifugal 
force  is  manifested  in  the  dominant,  and  likewise  in 
the  emotions  expressive  of  suspense  ^  it  is  typified  in 
the  question.  The  perfect  cadence  is  universally, 
and  I  may  say  intuitively,  recognized  as  the  only 
manner  in  which  a  composition  can  be  satisfactorily 
closed.  But  what  is  the  perfect  cadence  ?  It  is  a 
chord  built  on  the  dominant  of  a  key  followed  by 


INTERNAL  GOVERNMENT.  83 

one  on  its  tonic.  And  what  is  the  reason  that  it  is 
the  most  satisfactory  manner  of  closing  a  composi- 
tion ?  This  question  is  easily  answered  by  a  con- 
sideration of  the  data  that  have  just  been  adduced. 
The  satisfaction  is  most  intense  when  we  have 
tasted  the  suspense  to  its  extreme  limit ;  the  answer 
is  most  complete  when  it  follows  the  question  direct- 
ly, taking  it  in  to  its  fullest  extent. 

Of  course,  there  are  diJfferent  degrees  of  satisfac- 
tion. If  the  tonic  alone  is  employed  and  merely 
doubled  in  the  higher  parts,  the  satisfaction  is  per- 
fect ;  if  the  tonic  occurs  in  the  highest  part,  as  well 
as  the  lowest,  it  is  nearly  perfect ;  if  the  mediant  is 
heard  in  the  highest  part,  a  feeling  of  vagueness— 
often  charming — is  superadded  ;  and  if  the  dominant 
is  sounded  in  the  highest  part,  the  vagueness  is  con- 
siderably augmented :  the  mixture  of  suspense  with 
the  ground  feeling  of  satisfajCtion  creates,  in  fact,  a 
peculiar  weird  impression,  easily  and  (as  I  believe) 
only  explicable  by  considering  the  forces  that  I 
have  asserted  to  be  manifested  in  the  tonic  and  the 
dominant. 

Before  closing  this  part  of  ray  argument,  let  me 
refer  the  reader  to  two  powerful  passages  taken  at 
random  from  the   works  of  Beethoven,  where  he 


84  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

will  find  a  remarkable  corroboration  of  my  concep- 
tion of  the  tonic,  dominant,  and  attraction.  The 
first  consists  in  the  closing  measures  of  the  "  Largo 
Appassionato  "  of  the  Sonata  Opus  II.,  No.  2.  It 
is  impossible  to  describe  the  apathy  expressed  in 
that  cadence.  Yet,  by  analyzing  it,  according  to 
the  principles  which  I  have  set  forth,  we  can  ex- 
plain its  efi"ect  on  natural  grounds.  The  A  in  the 
bass  is  the  dominant  of  the  key — the  manifesta- 
tion of  suspense — and  the  mind  expects  it  to  move 
on  to  the  tonic  toward  which  it  gravitates.  It  does 
not  do  so,  however ;  and,  though  tlie  upper  parts 
have  already  entered  the  domains  of  the  tonic,  the 
bass  still  clings  to  the  dominant  as  though  in  com- 
plete abstraction.  The  upper  parts  attempt  to  con- 
sole— to  urge  it  to  abandon  the  dominant.  It  does 
so,  but  only  to  return  to  it  as  though  to  a  forlorn 
hope.  Then  the  upper  parts  finally  move  on  to  the 
tonic  and  remain  there,  and  so  nothing  is  left  for  the 
bass  but  to  follow.  But  it  does  so  reluctantly,  tar- 
dily, as  if  awakening  from  a  reverie.  The  emotions 
of  the  hearer  respond  to  all  these  movements,  and 
hence  are  afiected  as  they  are.  The  second  passage 
occurs  near  the  close  of  the  first  movement  of  the 
Seventh  Symphony.     It  is  expressive  of  an  intense 


INTERNAL   GOVERNNENT.  85 

longing  that  can  never  be  satisfied,  of  a  passionate 
yearning  for  the  unattainable,  or  to  nse  a  mag- 
nificent figure  of  a  modern  German  poet,'  it  is 
like  "the  love  of  the  sea  for  the  moon."  This 
is  due  to  the  conflict  between  the  forces  of  attrac- 
tion and  of  the  tonic.  A  seventh  is  attracted  to 
the  degree  below  it.  Here  we  find  the  seventh  in- 
verted in  tlie  bass  and  in  consequence  the  chord 
cannot  resolve  itself  on  the"  tonic,  but  must  do  so  on 
the  chord  of  the  sixth  oh  the  mediant.  This  chord 
is,  however,  unsatisfactory,  and  can  never  be  the 
concluding  one ;  and  the  vain  attempts  of  the  in- 
verted seventh  to  resolve  itself  satisfactorily,  re- 
peated and  repeated  with  obstinate  fervor,  though 
warned  and  entreated  by  the  pleading  tones  of  the 
upper  part,  constantly  obtaining  the  same  discon- 
tenting answer,  which  it  is  fated  to  receive,  and 
which  it  knows  that  it  must  receive,  is  the  picture 
of  fervent  hope  doomed  to  eternal  disappointment. 

Let  us  now  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the 
analogies  between  the  spintual  perceptions  of  the 
beautiful  in  visible  and  in  audible  Nature. 

'  Emmanuel  Glaser. 


86  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

Y. 

STATES   OF    MIND. 

The  beautiful  in  Nature,  whether  visible  or 
audible,  is  perceived  as  a  state  of  mind.  The  con- 
templation of  a  beautiful  landscape  impresses  our 
mind  directly,  primarily,  without  the  intervention 
of  thought;  a  certain  mood  takes  possession  of  us, 
we  know  not  how,  pervades  us,  masters  us,  and  gives 
rise  to  sentiments  and  thoughts.  By  listening  to  a 
great  composition,  our  mind  undergoes  the  same 
process — first  the  mood,  then  the  sentiment,  then 
the  definite  thought.  This  order  is  characteristic  of 
the  perception  of  the  beautiful  in  Nature.  Things 
in  Space  will  be  apt  to  produce  the  state  of  mind 
in  which  calmness  is  the  predominating  feature — 
things  in  Time  those  in  which  agitation  will  be  more 
perceptible.  It  is  true  that  music  can  also  affect 
us  with  calmness,  but  even  then  it  will  be  what 
might  be  called  emotional  calmness,  it  will  be  more 
powerful,  more  intense.  Yet  the  very  capability 
of  music  to  produce  this  cheerful  and  tender  calm- 
ness is  the  reason  why  it  can  depict  pastoral  scenes, 
for  by  its  means  it  produces  a  state  of  mind  analo- 


STATES  OF  MIND.  87 

gous  to  the  one  produced  by  such  scenes;  but  this 
depicting  must  solely  depend  on  the  spiritual  analo- 
gies manifested  in  tKe  states  of  mind ;  if  it  resorts 
to  other  means  it  will  have  a  degrading  effect. 
This  remark  applies  with  no  less  force  to  the  de- 
scription of  passions  and  actions  by  music ;  such 
description,  to  be  true  and  elevated,  must  look  to 
the  analogies  in  the  spiritual  perception,  to  the 
creation  of  similar  moods,  by  purely  musical  means. 
The  mission  of  Music  is  to  create,  not  to  imitate.  I 
know  that  a  modern  school  attempts  to  engraft  this 
degrading  process  of  imitation  on  music ;  but  to  do 
so  its  adherents  are  forced  to  resort  to  descriptive 
programmes,  forced  to  confess  that  without  this 
extraneous  assistance  their  music  is  meaningless  I 
Essentially  they  occupy  the  same  position,  as  com- 
posers, that  a  painter  would  occupy  who  would  be 
compelled  to  write  below  his  work, "  This  is  a  man," 
or, "  That  is  a  cow ! "  This  is  no  exaggeration,  for  the 
object  of  the  painter  is  to  give  an  accurate  repre- 
sentation of  something  that  can  be  seen ;  the  ob- 
ject of  the  musician,  to  create  frames  of  mind  from 
which  sentiments  and  thoughts  are  to  spring ;  and 
the  painter  who  is  compelled  to  show  by  words 
what  he  intends  to  delineate,  and  the  musician 


88  WHAT  IS   MUSIC? 

wlio  leaves  to  words  the  indirect  production  of 
states  of  mind,  come  under  the  same  category. 

At  the  same  time  a  painting  which  fulfills  all  the 
requirements  of  art  may  yet  be  made  to  produce  a 
more  intense  impression  on  the  beholder  by  a  de- 
scription limiting  the  general  idea  conveyed,  and 
this  case  finds  its  analogy  in  vocal,  music,  not  in  in- 
strumental. But,  as  the  painting  must  be  complete 
in  itself,  limited  and  intensified  by  the  verbal  descrip- 
tion, but  not  dependent  on  it  for  its  position  in  the 
art,  so  in  vocal  music  the  composition  must  be  com- 
plete in  itself — must  be  able  by  itself  to  create  the 
desired  state  of  mind,  depending  on  the  words  for 
limiting  and  intensifying  its  impression.  Witness 
the  master  songs  of  Schubert.  The  music  in  itself 
is  complete  and  afiects  us  most  powerfully ;  and 
therefore,  when  the  efiect  of  the  poetry  is  added,  de- 
fining and  thereby  intensifying  our  sentiments  and 
thoughts,  the  influence  exercised  on  our  emotions 
by  the  truly  natural  combination  is  simply  inde- 
scribable. 

And  as  far  as  this  completeness  of  the  composi- 
tion within  itself  is  concerned,  I  may  add  that  it  is 
as  necessary  in  the  dramatic  style  as  in  the  lyric. 
In  the  classical  operas  the  music,  independently  of 


STATES  OF    MIND.  89 

tlie  words  or  the  action,  calls  forth  the  desired  state 
of  mind ;  it  is,  as  it  should  be,  a  thing  of  beauty  in 
itself;  and,  when  the  words  and  action  are  heard 
and  seen  in  connection  with  it,  they  perform  their 
legitimate  duty  of  defining  and  intensifying.  And 
I  shall  be  bold  enough  to  say  that  those  operas 
wherein  the  music  is  not' beautiful  in  itself;  not 
capable  by  itself  of  performing  its  legitimate  duty 
of  creating  states  of  mind ;  wherein  it  is  unintel- 
ligible to  the  human  soul ;  wherein  it  is  reduced  to 
the  mere  so-called  word-painting — that  such  operas 
are  not  works  of  art,  but  incongruous  conglomer- 
ates. Incongruous  also  are  those  operas  wherein 
the  music  is  composed  without  the  object  of  pro- 
ducing the  state  of  mind  called  for  by  the  subject, 
but  merely  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  a  vocalist 
to  display  his  execution.  Emphatically  I  repeat 
that  only  such  operas  are  legitimate,  and  occupy 
a  high  position  in  music,  wherein  the  composer 
creates  by  his  music  the  state  of  mind  analogous 
to  that  desired  to  be  created  by  the  poet.  Let  us 
hear  Prof.  Helmholtz's  opinion  on  this  matter  : 

"  Music  is  most  powerful  when  combined  with 
language;  for  language  expresses  the  causes  thai 
produce  the  state  of  mind,  and  particularizes  the 


90  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

sentiments  which  underlie  it,  while  music  produces 
in  a  direct  manner  the  state  of  mind  connected 
with  the  sentiments.  "When  diverse  hearers  at- 
tempt to  particularize  the  impression  made  upon 
them  hy  a  certain  composition,  and  each  one  men- 
tions some  different  situation  or  sentiment,  the 
ignorant  laugh,  and  call  them  enthusiasts.  And 
yet  each  one  may  be  right,  for  music  does  not  ex- 
press sentiments  or  situations,  but  the  entire  fram^ 
of  mind ,'  and  this  frame  of  mind  the  hearer  can- 
not express  except  by  describing  certain  Objects 
which  put  him  in  a  mood  similar  to  the  one  excited 
by  the  music.  But  diverse  sentiments,  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  or  upon  different  individuals, 
may  produce  similar  states  of  mind,  while  similar 
sentiments  may  in  like  manner  produce  different 
moods.  Love  is  a  sentiment.  Directly  as  such 
music  cannot  express  it.  But  it  can  express  the 
dreamy  longing  for  ethereal  bliss  resulting  from  the 
sentiment  of  love.  Religious  enthusiasm  may,  how- 
ever, produce  a  state  of  mind  in  which  a  similar 
longing  is  the  predominant  feature.  TVhen,  there- 
fore, a  composition  creates  such  a  state  of  mind, 
one  hearer  may  translate  it  as  expressing  love; 
another,  religious  inspiration  ;  without  that  they 
necessarily  contradict  each  other." 


CONCLUSION.  91 


CONCLUSION. 

It  must  be  evident  to  the  reader  that,  as  a 
necessary  result  of  my  speculations  and  argu- 
ment, I  consider  music  as  being  placed  above  the 
arts  properly  so  called,  as  a  peer  of  that  higher 
art  which  creates  those  untold  varieties  of  the  beau- 
tiful that  are  perceived  by  our  sense  of  vision.  It 
stands  in  the  same  relation  to  Time  that  the  latter 
stands  to  Space,  it  exercises  the  same  functions  in 
Time  that  the  latter  exercises  in  Space.  Like  those 
of  the  latter,  its  creations  are  absolute  manifesta- 
tions of  the  beautiful — are  things — they  exist  for 
their  own  sake — they  are  because  they  are  /  in  the 
purely  human  arts,  on  the  contrary,  we  lind  but 
imitations  of  what  already  exist  in  Nature,  or  de- 
scriptions of  things  and  actions. 

And  now,  in  conclusion,  let  me  give  a  short  re- 
sume of  my  fundamental  theory  of  music. 

By  the  study  of  physical  sciences  we  find  that 
the  universe  is  governed  by  laws;  furtlier  investiga- 
tions show  that  these  laws  arc  subservient  to  great 
principles. 

One  of  these  great  principles,  is  the  principle  of 
Beauty. 


92  WHAT  IS   MUSIC?      . 

Beauty  is  manifested  in  three  great  forms  :  tlie 
moral,  the  intellectual,  and  the  physical. 

These  three  classes  of  the  beautiful  present  great 
analogies,  are  closely  interlinked,  and  exercise  a 
strong  reciprocal  influence  upon  each  other. 

The  physically  beautiful  is  manifested  either  in 
things  in  Space  or  in  things  in  Time. 

The  beautiful  in  things  in  Space  is  opened  to  us 
chiefly  by  the  organ  of  vision  ;  the  beautiful  in  things 
in  Time  chiefly  by  the  organ  of  hearing. 

In  visible  Nature  beauty  is  a  direct  emanation 
of  Nature  itself,  which  has  developed  it  from  the 
original  voidness  without  admitting  of  intervention. 
Here  man  can  do  naught  but  imitate  the  beautiful. 

In  the  beautifying  of  audible  Nature,  however, 
nature  has  reserved  but  an  inferior  part  for  its  own 
unaided  self;  it  has  supplied  the  laws  under  which 
the  development  was  to  take  place,  but  left  the  de- 
velopment itself  chiefly  to  the  absolute  control  of 
man.    In  Time,  therefore,  man  creates  the  beautiful. 

But  as  in  Time  the  science  and  art  of  nmsic  do 
for  Nature  that  which  in  Space  it  does  for  itself,  the 
vast  importance  of  music  in  the  cosmos,  is  self-evi- 
dent. 

The  forms  of  the  heautiful  in  Time  and  in  Space 


CONCLUSION.  93 

are^  however^  not  sej[>arate  and  distinct  things  with 
no  connection  hetween  tJiem,  as  they  appear  to  he  / 
lut  on  the  contrary  there  are  the  strongest  and  most 
positive  real  analogies  hetween  them,  arising  from, 
the  very  great  fundamental  analogies  existing  he- 
tween Time  and  Space  themselves. 

(Time  and  Space,  however,  impart  tlieir  funda- 
mental characteristics  to  the  forms  of  beauty  exist- 
ing in  them.  Therefore  music,  existing  ia  Time, 
and  Time  being  motion,  it  is  the  characteristic  of 
music  to  be  emotive.) 

The  fundamental  analogies  between  Time  and 
Space  manifest  themselves  in  the  manner  in  which 
beauty  is  perceived  and  produced  in  either. 

Beauty  is  perceived  in  both  by  the  same  means 
— vibrations— ^and  by  instruments  that  have  strong 
analogies  between  them — the  eye  and  the  ear. 

Beauty  is  produced  in  both  by  very  similar 
means.  The  identity  of  tones  and  colors  has  long 
been  discovered,  and  I  hold  that  there  is  the  same 
identity  of  forms  and  rhythms.  The  straight  line 
is  manifested  in  dual  metre,  the  curved  line  in  triple 
metre.  False  rhythm,  whether  we  use  the  word  in 
the  wide  or  in  the  narrow  sense,  is  equivalent  to 
want  of  symmetry  in  things  in  Space. 


94  WHAT  IS    MUSIC? 

The  principles  that  are  manifested  in  the  forces 
governing  the  universe — gravity,  centrifugal  force, 
and  attraction— are  likewise  manifested  in  the  inter- 
nal government  of  music. 

And,  lastly,  the  spiritual  perception  of  the  beau- 
tiful in  both  visible  and  audible  Nature  is  identical ; 
namely,  as  states  of  mind. 

.  As  a  final  result  of  my  speculations,  I  hold  that 
music  is  not  accidental  and  human,  but  dynamical 
and  cosmical. 


THE   END. 


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